16th century  

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[[Image:Mona Lisa (ca. 1503-1507) - Leonardo da Vinci.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Born two years after [[Hieronymus Bosch]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s work is far less transgressive than his lesser known contemporary, the first exemplifies [[Northern Renaissance]], the second [[Italian Renaissance]].]] [[Image:Mona Lisa (ca. 1503-1507) - Leonardo da Vinci.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Born two years after [[Hieronymus Bosch]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s work is far less transgressive than his lesser known contemporary, the first exemplifies [[Northern Renaissance]], the second [[Italian Renaissance]].]]
{{Template}} {{Template}}
-As a means of recording the passage of [[time]], the '''16th century''' was that [[century]] which lasted from [[1501]] through [[1600]].+ 
 +The '''16th century''' (or '''XVIth century''') begins with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] year [[1501]] ([[Roman numerals|MDI]]) and ends with either the Julian or the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] year [[1600]] ([[Roman numerals|MDC]]) (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).
 + 
 +The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of [[Western civilization]] and the [[Age of the Islamic Gunpowders]] occurred. The [[Renaissance]] in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include [[accounting]] and [[political science]]. [[Copernicus]] proposed the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric universe]], which was met with strong resistance, and [[Tycho Brahe]] refuted the theory of [[celestial spheres]] through observational measurement of the [[SN 1572|1572 appearance]] of a [[Milky Way]] [[supernova]]. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by [[Ptolemy]] and [[Aristotle]], and led to major revolutions in [[astronomy]] and [[scientific revolution|science]]. [[Galileo Galilei]] became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of [[physics]] and [[astronomy]], becoming a major figure in the [[Scientific Revolution]].
 + 
 +Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], followed by France and England in [[northern America]] and the [[lesser Antilles]]. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between [[Brazil]], the coasts of Africa, their possessions in the [[Indies]] and the [[Moluccas]] in [[Oceania]], whereas the Spanish came to dominate the [[greater Antilles]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], and opened trade across the [[Pacific Ocean]], linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French corsaires began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of [[colonialism]] established [[mercantilism]] as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a [[zero-sum game]] in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist [[doctrine]] encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European [[expansionism|expansion]] and [[imperialism]] throughout the world until the [[19th century]] or early [[20th century]].
 + 
 +The [[Protestant Reformation]] in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the [[Pope|papacy]] and the [[Catholic Church]]. In [[Kingdom of England|England]], the British-Italian [[Alberico Gentili]] wrote the first book on public international law and divided [[secularism]] from [[canon law]] and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal [[Thirty Years' War]] being laid towards the end of the century.
 + 
 +In the [[Middle East]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] continued to expand, with the [[Sultan]] taking the title of [[Caliph]], while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] sect of [[Islam]] under the rule of the [[Safavid dynasty]] of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim world]].
 + 
 +In the [[Indian subcontinent]], following the defeat of the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultanate empire]] and [[Vijayanagara Empire]], new powers emerged, the [[Suri Empire]] founded by [[Sher Shah Suri]], [[Deccan sultanates]] and the [[Mughal Empire]] by Emperor [[Babur|Babur of Mughal Dynasty]], a direct descendant of [[Timur]] and [[Genghis Khan]]. His successors [[Humayun]] and [[Akbar]], enlarged the empire to include most of [[South Asia]]. The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of [[history of India|Indian history]].
 + 
 +Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the [[Sengoku period]], and emerged from it as a unified nation. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty and came into conflict with Japan and Japanese piracy over the control of Korea.
 + 
 + 
==Literature== ==Literature==
Line 229: Line 244:
*[[Giordano Bruno]], Italian philosopher and astronomer/astrologer ([[1548]] – [[1600]]). *[[Giordano Bruno]], Italian philosopher and astronomer/astrologer ([[1548]] – [[1600]]).
*[[Nicolaus Copernicus]], ([[1473]] – [[1543]]) [[astronomer]], developed the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] ([[Sun]]-centered) [[theory]] using [[science|scientific]] methods. *[[Nicolaus Copernicus]], ([[1473]] – [[1543]]) [[astronomer]], developed the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] ([[Sun]]-centered) [[theory]] using [[science|scientific]] methods.
-*[[Galileo Galilei]] ([[1564]]<ref name=birthdate>[[#Reference-Drake-1978|Drake (1978, p.1).]] The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the [[Julian calendar]], which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar.</ref> – [[1642]]) was a [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] ([[Italian people|Italian]]) [[physicist]], [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]], and [[philosopher]] who played a major role in the [[scientific revolution]].+*[[Galileo Galilei]] ([[1564]] – [[1642]]) was a [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] ([[Italian people|Italian]]) [[physicist]], [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]], and [[philosopher]] who played a major role in the [[scientific revolution]].
*[[Konrad Gessner]] ([[1516]] – [[1565]]) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[natural history|naturalist]], [[bibliographer]], [[Botanist]], His three-volume ''[[Historiae Animalium]]'' (1551-1558) is considered the beginning of modern [[zoology]] *[[Konrad Gessner]] ([[1516]] – [[1565]]) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[natural history|naturalist]], [[bibliographer]], [[Botanist]], His three-volume ''[[Historiae Animalium]]'' (1551-1558) is considered the beginning of modern [[zoology]]
*[[William Gilbert]], also known as Gilbard, [[1544]] – [[1603]]) was an English physician and a natural philosopher. *[[William Gilbert]], also known as Gilbard, [[1544]] – [[1603]]) was an English physician and a natural philosopher.

Revision as of 08:46, 14 January 2022

The Winter (1563) by Giuseppe Arcimboldo
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The Winter (1563) by Giuseppe Arcimboldo

Related: Protestantism, Renaissance

Visual arts: Mannerism, Northern Renaissance, Hans Baldung, Matthias Grünewald, Brueghel, Quentin Matsys, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Albrecht Dürer

Criminals: Elizabeth Báthory

Literature: Index Librorum Prohibitorum, Utopia, The Prince, The Book of the Courtier, I Modi, picaresque novels

Writers: François Rabelais, Thomas More, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baldassare Castiglione, Pietro Aretino, Michel de Montaigne

More: 16th century art, 16th century literature

Born two years before Leonardo da Vinci, Hieronymus Bosch's work is radically different from his better known contemporary, the first exemplifies Italian Renaissance, the second Northern Renaissance.
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Born two years before Leonardo da Vinci, Hieronymus Bosch's work is radically different from his better known contemporary, the first exemplifies Italian Renaissance, the second Northern Renaissance.
Born two years after Hieronymus Bosch, Leonardo da Vinci's work is far less transgressive than his lesser known contemporary, the first exemplifies Northern Renaissance, the second Italian Renaissance.
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Born two years after Hieronymus Bosch, Leonardo da Vinci's work is far less transgressive than his lesser known contemporary, the first exemplifies Northern Renaissance, the second Italian Renaissance.

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The 16th century (or XVIth century) begins with the Julian year 1501 (MDI) and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (MDC) (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).

The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of Western civilization and the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders occurred. The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. Galileo Galilei became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of physics and astronomy, becoming a major figure in the Scientific Revolution.

Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of Central and South America, followed by France and England in northern America and the lesser Antilles. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between Brazil, the coasts of Africa, their possessions in the Indies and the Moluccas in Oceania, whereas the Spanish came to dominate the greater Antilles, Mexico, Peru, and opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French corsaires began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a zero-sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century.

The Protestant Reformation in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Catholic Church. In England, the British-Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the century.

In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the Shiite sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-Sunni Muslim world.

In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate empire and Vijayanagara Empire, new powers emerged, the Suri Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri, Deccan sultanates and the Mughal Empire by Emperor Babur of Mughal Dynasty, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. His successors Humayun and Akbar, enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia. The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.

Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the Sengoku period, and emerged from it as a unified nation. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty and came into conflict with Japan and Japanese piracy over the control of Korea.


Contents

Literature

Literature in the 16th century was still the province of a happy few. Important books include Gargantua and Pantagruel by Rabelais and Heptameron by the Queen of Navarre.

Gargantua and Pantagruel by François Rabelais, illustrated by Gustave Doré
Enlarge
Gargantua and Pantagruel by François Rabelais, illustrated by Gustave Doré

Literature in the 16th century was still the province of a happy few, the movable type printing press was only a recent invention. Important books include Gargantua and Pantagruel by Rabelais, In Praise of Folly by Erasmus, the anonymously published Lazarillo de Tormes and Heptameron by the Marguerite de Navarre.

Medieval romances were reduced to cheap and abrupt plots resembling modern comic books. Neither were the first collections of novels necessarily prestigious projects. They appeared with an enormous variety from folk tales over jests to stories told by Boccaccio and Chaucer, now venerable authors.

A more prestigious market of romances developed in the 16th century, with multi-volume works aiming at an audience which would subscribe to this production. The criticism levelled against romances by Chaucer's pilgrims grew in response both to the trivialisations and to the extended multi-volume "romances". Romances like the Amadis de Gaula led their readers into dream worlds of knighthood and fed them with ideals of a past no one could revitalise, or so the critics complained.

Italian authors like Machiavelli were among those who brought the novel into a new format: while it remained a story of intrigue, ending in a surprising point, the observations were now much finer: how did the protagonists manage their intrigue? How did they keep their secrets, what did they do when others threatened to discover them?

Curiosities included Hermaphroditus, Book of Kisses, Portrait of Lozana: The Lusty Andalusian Woman and The Book of the Prick.

Titles

See also

Visual arts

Countercultural events

Countercultural events: In 1512 Copernicus states that the earth revolves around the sun. In the 1530s the first sodomy laws arise in the UK. Medieval heretics of Anabaptism.

from A Biased Timeline of the Counter-Culture 1500- HIGH RENAISSANCE Age of exploration & colonization of Asia, Africa, Cen & So Am rise of the centralized state (Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Shakespeare) 1501 Moors of Spain defeated/conquered expelled? 1502 Peasants' revolt, Speyer, Ger 1509 restart of European slave trade; settlers bring Africans to S. Am. 1512 Copernicus states that the earth and planets revolve around the sun (1549 objection) 1513 Peasants' revolt: Wurttemberg and Black Forest 1514 Peasants' revolt, Hungary 1516 Sir Thomas More: Utopia (1551 translated from Latin to Eng) 1517 Martin Luther, inspired by the conservative Hussites, protests against the Church's sales of indulgences by posting his 95 theses on the door of the Palast Church, Wittenberg --> Reformation in Germany 1524-5 Peasants' revolt against landlords S. Ger. led by Thomas Munzer, founder of the Anabaptist movement (& Austria) - defeated 1528 The weavers of Kent riot against Wolsey's policy to move English staple town for wool from Antwerp to Calais 1534 `Communist state' of Anabaptists under leadership of John of Leiden at Munster, Westphalia 1536 Church of England separates from the Pope 1536 first European newspaper: Gazetta, Venice (& see 1566) 1547 Nostradamus (1503-66) makes first predictions 1550- EARLY BAROQUE 1560 Huguenots (Fr) / Puritanism (Eng) 1566 Calvinist riots in Netherlands; Inquisition there abolished 1567 two million Native Americans in Sout America die of typhoid fever 1579 St. John of the Cross: xxx

List of writers

General culture

Significant people

Exploration

Visual artists

16th century art

Musicians and Composers

16th century music

Science and philosophy

16th century philosophy

See also


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