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"Chair-making is a branch generally confined to itself, as those who professedly work at it, seldom engage to make cabinet furniture. In the country manufactories it is otherwise; yet even these pay some regard to keeping their workmen constantly at the chair, or to cabinet work. The two branches seem evidently to require different talents in workmen, in order to become proficients."--The Cabinet Dictionary (1803) by Thomas Sheraton

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The Cabinet Dictionary (1803) is a compendium of instructions on the techniques of cabinet and chair making by Thomas Sheraton.

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INTRODUCTION. IN perusing the following Dictionary , the reader will find some terms, which probably he will judge too simple in their nature to justify their insertion . Tothe experienced work man of both branches , it may appear so, as he is so well acquainted with every article already

but if hebe candid,

as well as skilful, in his business , let him recollect himself a little, on the nature and evident design of such alphabetical arrangements

and it will

readily occur to him, that they are intended to instruct youth, and particularly those enter ing into each respective branch, who are supposed not even to understand the names of the tools they are to work with. But, besides such considerations , there are gentlemen , who, being of a mechanical turn, frequently amuse themselves by enquiries into the technical terms of such professions

and

I know of none to which gentlemen of this class have a stronger turn than the cabinet branch. In compiling a dictionary, professedly to illustrate all the words of both branches, I thought myself bound to attend as minutely to every term, as their nature would admit of, judging it safest to follow the example of all other dictionary writers ; who never make an estimate of those words that the public are supposed already to be acquainted with, and which are, therefore, not to be introduced into their work. On the contrary, they wisely think for the rising generation that are springing up before them; and for foreigners too, iv INTRODUCTION. who need to be informed. As Dr. Johnson himself does, in his immortal Dictionary, that a, an, and the, are articles put before nouns, to express their relation or circumstances : and there are thousands ofother words in that justly celebrat ed performance, that the most illiterate were acquainted with, as a part of their mother tongue, before it made its appearance in the world. Whenwe view the maps ofwell-known places and roads, we are seldom offended with the geographer, for inserting into his descriptive picture, those which we are familiar with already ; but rather approve of his strict attention in directing entire strangers. In this light, I am persuaded, the sensible and candid of both branches, will consider the insertion ofseveral words in the subsequent work. It is, however, the fate of such performances, published for the use of one or two mechanical branches only, to labour (particularly it is so with those that appear periodi cally before completed, as this has done) under the dis advantage arising from the gross ignorance and invidiousness of certain persons belonging to them, who, when they have gained some smattering knowledge, set up for critics, and are the most ready to snap at the hand by whom they have received it ; that it may appear to their neighbours that they are no way indebted to such works for their knowledge ; and that themselves are the most proper persons to have been employed in such a service. But, though we have thus laboured under the ignorance, prejudice, and melevolence of some, yet there has been sufficient encouragement granted by the dispassionate, candid, and judicious of both branches, to bring it to a conclusion; and the increasing mortification of the former INTRODUCTION. will fall upon their own heads, with double force, when they will perceive it surviving, and themselves hushed into silence, by public approbation. I have no doubt, however, of my own imperfections in the work, andthat many things are capable of being improv ed by the ingenious workmen of both branches, when they come to put them into execution. Yet I have this to say, that all the designs are capable of being finished exacly as they appear in the engravings ; for I have not figured away. with my pencil, on a baseless fabric, as some have done, without consulting whether the particulars out of the com mon way, were or were not workable by a good me chanic. And it may be proper to inform the reader, that a few of the articles, which are referred to the Supplement, have been omitted to give place to a more particular attention to the subject of geometrical and perspective lines, which werejudged of more consequence to the work. It is also requested, that the reader will notice an error in page 267, on measuring : where it is directed to add the product to itself only, for the whole sum of the area, which should be multiplied by 4 ; for, in proposing to divide the given area into half the length and width, for the sake of ease, it did not occur to me at the time of writing it, that such a division made the area only a quarter of the whole, which it evidently does, and therefore the product of the quarter area, requires to be multiplied by 4. This memento I received from a Mr. Orchard, of Bath, who, in a letter, was so obliging as to send me the hint, which I thankfully acknowledge in this public manner. 1 vi INTRODUCTION. The reader will perceive that the plates are, many of them, numbered incorrectly, when he compares the index number with it ; but this will cause no embarrassment, as each design is placed as near as can be to face its own name, in the alphabet. Lastly, the reader, if he be a subscriber, on inspecting the wrapper of his first number, will find that the conditions stated only seventy copper plates in the whole ; but nowhe isinthe possession of eighteen plates more ; and four ofthese are of a folio size, on perspective, which in all make eighty-eight. When, therefore, the book is to be bound, it will be proper to see if the plates amount to this quantity, and answer to those specified in the index ; and if any de ficiency or redundency has arisen, through the carelessness of the stitchers, these may be rectified by proper application. And I flatter myself, that the subscribers to this dictionary, on finding that I have thus acted both faithfully and gene. rously towards them, will feel themselves disposed to encourage my new and more splendid work, now pub fishing, entitled the Cabinet-maker, Upholsterer, and General Artists' Encyclopædia. T. SHERATON. London, October, 1803. ! Directions for placing the Plates. PLATE I to face s 1216 23456789 20II12 131475 1617#8 19 Am8888 તેમજતે 2930313333333mi 32333435365678 37383940414243444546 47 48 味牛肉丽麵 49505452 PAGE 17J818182020 3636384444444444447287 8 90 92104 112 118 119 127 167 167 167 160 162 164 166 170 172 172 172 172 172 202 202 203 203 203 203 203 348 248 248 256 Alcove bed Lines in perspective, and chair arms Drawing room arm chairs Grand masonic arm chair Library arm chair and masonic ditto Curricle arm chairs Herculanium chairs Various easy chairs and their dimensions Architraves and mouldings, numbered 8, under the article Aṇo CHITRAVE, instead of 9 Three bason stands The bases of the five orders Bason stand and balcony An elegant French bed Adesign for a four- post bed Acamp bed Aduchesse bed A sofa bed A crib bed Bookcase Botany Bookcase doors, 12 different patterns Brackets for lamps, and stump feet for drawers Buffet, with lights for china, by mistake marked 23 Bureau, and moving book shelf, by ditto marked 23 An elegant cabinet for a lady, by ditto marked 24 A ditto with a glass and lights by ditto marked 25 Acanterbury for supper, ditto Conversation chair and coridor stool , ditt Two bed room chairs Two designs for parlour chairs The Tuscan order in perspective The Doric order ditto The Ionic order ditto The Corinthian order ditto The Composite order ditto French commode English commode A cylinder bookcase with wings Aladies cylinder bookcase with lights The sister's cylinder bookcase to write at on both sides Sofa dressing table Dressing commode Two designs for dumb waiters Lines for dining table and horse shoe writing table Deception table and French rod Twodesigns for drawing room chairs, by mistake engraved drawing chairs An elegant design of a Grecian dining table with a suitable sideboard A Grecian couch AGrecian squab A handsome pier glass AFrench horse dressing glass viii DIRECTIONS . PLATE 53 toface 256 545556 57 58 59606162 6364 65VODOBRE AMON578 6768 697071 7273747576 777879ზა PLATE 3 4 PAGE PLATE 2 259 260 260 260 260 260 283 283 284 284 285 292 300 303 303 3 4 304 304 395 PAGE I to face 342 2 350 358 362 305 305 305 306 306 318 PAGE I to face 400 400 404 414 Two designs for hall chairs An elegant library case Two new designs for library tables, one after the antique Anew shaped library table with brass rail and lights Library steps Anew design for a loo table A new occasional table Apedestal and vase A tripod light 332 332 Elegant ditto Supplementary Plates on Geometry and Perspective, Anew design of a Pembroké table ' Anew pier table Five new designs of table pillars Two new designs of pouch tables Two new designs of sarcophagii Asecretary and bookcase A gentleman's secretary and ladies writing table A gentleman's shaving table Anew design for a sideboard, with centre cellarets and brass rod A very elegant design of a sideboard , with a mirror in the centre of the brass rod Aneat horse fire screen with 2 sliding wings A Grecian sofa Asofa and sofa table A quartetto table A sofa writing table A field officer's tent and guard set Elegant drapery for window curtains Contains twenty one figures of geometrical lines for workmen Contains six figures, by which to illustrate the instruments of drawing Contains six figures of lines for cornice, bed tester, and pedi ment drawing Contains thirteen figures of lines for mouldings, including two methods of drawing the Ionic volute Perspective Plates ofFolio Size. Containing ten figures, including the elementary planes, a chair, shaving stand, and step ladder, in perspective Containing figures, of the representation of various pieces of furniture Containing the representation of the lonic and Corinthian capitals at large The complete picture, being a representation of five pieces of new fashioned furniture, variously oblique to the picture; shewing their respective vanishing points, both of the ob jects and their shadows; together with the methods of finding the sun's vanishing points on the picture, whether parallel, perpendicular, or variously oblique to the picture ; both when the eye of the spectator is situated between the sun and the picture, and when it is supposed that the picture is between the eye and the sun " THE CABINET DICTIONARY. A A ABACUS. In architecture is the uppermost member of the capitals of the five orders. In the Tuscan and Doric orders it is square, but in the Corinthian and Composite the sides of the Abacus are concave. See CAPITAL. It conveys the idea of a tile laid over a basket, which the ovolo in the capital represents. This according to Vetruvius was its origin. It is therefore a crowning mem ber, and completes the column, serving as a rest to the architrave. Literally, it signifies a flat board, table, or tile, and arithmetically, a board divided by the ancients on which to reckon and make calculations. This Abacus was divided into five lines, on which were placed units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands; so that each line increased the number or value of the preceding one ten times ; noted by placing little balls or pins fixed into holes for that purpose. ACANTHUS, is a plant which grows irregularly with large leaves. The ornament introduced into the Co rinthian and Composite capitals was taken from it, and so modelled as to make a uniform and elegant appearance in those orders-See CAPITAL. ACCIDENTAL POINT. In perspective, is the meeting of any two original lines parallel to each other on the plane of the horizon, not in the centre of the picture. B AER The lines A B in fig. 1. plate 2. are lines originally parallel, which have their vanishing point in v in the plain of the horizon. The distance d, s, is pre-supposed, and d, v, being drawn parallel, A B gives the accidental point, which is only so in a relative sense, with respect to the centre of the picture s, which is a fixed point perpendicular to the eye of the spectator, into which all lines vanish which are perpendicular to the picture. Hence any point not in the centre s may be considered as accidental, since its place on the horizon depends on the angle which the original line A B makes with the ground line G R. Strictly speaking, no point is acci dental ; considered as generated from some original line or lines ; produced till they cut the perspective plane ; which line or lines must find some determined point on the vanishing plane of the said lines, whether parallel to the horizon, in the horizon, or in a plain oblique to it. Under this view of the subject the term Accidental Point in perspective is a solecism . ACROTERIA. Small pedestals without bases, in pedi ments, serving to support statues. Those at the extremi ties ought to be half the height of the tympanum, and that in the middle one eighth more. AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, is used in distinction from linear. The former denotes those rules by which objects are drawn by lines, according to their distance and pro portion ; the latter, that due degree of tint and colouring necessary, to make those objects seem at a proper dis tance. And onthis depends as much of the beauty of any picture, as on any other branch of art whatever. This theory is founded npon optical principles ; for as vision is effected by rays of light, reflected from lumi nous bodies to the eye ; consequently the rays become weaker to the eye, in proportion to the length of their passage through the air, before they arrive at the pupil. 2013 AER 3 Hence a strict regard to these principles, with their due application, is termed the science of Aerial Perspective. Those who understand linear perspective, and prac tise little but architecture, are very apt to make blunders in their keeping, when they attempt any thing of land scape. Their back grounds will be too strong of colour probably, and their front objects too weak. The gra dations of light and shade, according to the different distances will not be preseved, nor the tints blended to gether so as to harmonize with nature. Nature at a distance seems to be a combination of every colour, or light variously tinged with red, yellow, blue, and the privation of light, which is black ; so that a judicious mixture of these appears to be that sort of grey tinge suitable for the greatest distances, gradually dividing these colours as we advance to the fore ground. -See KEEPING. Let the young practitioner observe in plate II. fig. 3. that there are several distances in that small landscape, which are distinguishable not merely by their being con tracted in magnitude as the hills recede ; but likewise in the strength of their tints and colouring: for suppose the hills all of one strength of colour, they would then ap pear to be so many hills in one parallel plane, one larger thanthe other, and not as they are intended to convey the idea of hills behind each other, until they nearly blend in with the sky. And let him observe as to the house, bridge, and tree, that they have a proportionable strength of tint, according to their natural colours and distance. The house is supposed to be on the other side of the bridge ; the colour is therefore rather weaker, and the parts more faintly made out. The tree is on this side of the bridge, and being green requires still additional strength of colour on this account ; and it is strongly marked as all objects onthe foreground require ; therefore B 2 景" ALC the figure in the boat, and the boat itself being nearer the eye, are objects that require the strongest light and shade in this landscape. Lastly, observe that the insides of the arches are strongly shaded, that they may clear the hills which they intersect in appearance. ALABASTER. A stone, nearly allied to marble, and will receive a good polish. There are several species of other stone . it, some of which exceed in whiteness every It is soft and easy to work, on which account it is used by sculptors for statues, and for other work where much carving is required.

ALCOVE, or RECESS, used in Spain for seats and some times for beds of state. The English have imitated these by sometimes fitting up the end of long rooms in this style ; which may answer both for ornament and to bring any apartment of an undue length into proportion. In forming such an alcove for a place of retirement to rest on; a couple of Corinthian columns may be placed on each side of the room, so as to leave a spacious en trance into the alcove. The columns should not be less than six feet from the end of the room, nor more than nine, except in extrordinary cases . The seats are made low to receive their cushions, and drapery valances are fixed to the under edge of the frame. From surbase height the walls are covered with silk quilted, or dis posed into uniform pannels, in any other manner, to suit In the space between the surbase the rest of the room. are placed back cushions, or a stuffed back, framed to fit all round and screwed to. Fromthe frieze ofthe cornice below the ceiling is fixed draperies, either with or with out tails : such alcoves when properly applied have a pleasing effect. When they are fitted up for beds it will add to the effect , if the bed be placed on a double plinth, in the form of two steps, laid with carpet to suit the rest, and the effect will be still heightened, if a drapery f •

1 • ALD 5 • be fixed, parting from the centre of the, entrance and flowing down each side of the inner columns. In plate 1. is a design for a bed of this kind, which, if well exe cuted, I presume, would have a pleasing effect. + There is a curtain under the drapery which slides on a rod, and may be brought forward to cover the whole bed. The other tied up may be considered as a fixed drapery, but may be taken down occasionally. The tester and cornice need not project more than twenty inches, and the length of the bed including the volutes about eight feet. Not having room on the plate we could not represent the columns mentioned in the descrip tion, which the reader will supply in his own con ceptions. ALDER TREE. In the Linnean system it is termed Betula, comprehending five species, four of which, ac cording to their generic character, are of the birch kind; 1. With oval sawed leaves, ending in points, or the common birch tree. 2. With rhomboid, oval, pointed leaves, doubly sawed. 3. With oblong, pointed, heart shaped, sawed leaves. 4. With round, runated leaves. 5th, With branching feet stalks, which is the Alder Tree. Mr. Wheeler says, " The common birch tree is a native of the northern parts of Europe : the 2d and 3d species of North America, and the 4th grows naturally, on the mountains of Lapland, Sweden and Russia. The 5th, or Alder Tree, is a native of most countries of Europe, and may be propagated by planting of truncheons of three feet in length. About the beginning of March the truncheons should be sharpened at one end, and the ground loosened with an instrument before they are thrust in, lest the bark should be torn off. They should be two feet deep in the earth at least, and kept afterwards clear from large weeds. They must be planted at six feet square distant from each other, and in the following B 3 6 ALK autumn may be transplanted to the place where they are to remain. " TheAlder Tree, as planted in our forests, is distinguished under two species, red and white. It suits well, says Mr. Emmerick, to " wet or swampy spots, where scarcely any other valuable wood can be raised. It is particularly adapted for buildings, or props under water ; as, if no air get to it, it becomes as firm and hard as stone, and will stand for ever. The hatters give a great price for its bark, which they use in dying black. " It is said that the peculiar properties of this tree prevents cattle from cropping it when it is first planted. ALKANET. A species of Anchusa, as I suppose, the root of which is much in use amongst cabinet makers, for making red oil ; the best composition for which, as far as I know, is as follows : take a quart of good linseed oil, to which put a quarter of a pound of akanet root, as much opened with the hand as possible, that the bark of the root which tinges the oil may fly off; to this put about an ounce of dragon's blood, and another of rose pink, finely pounded in a mortar ; set the whole within a moderate heat for twelve hours at least, or better if a day and a night. Then strain it through a flannel into a bottle for use. This staining oil is not properly applicable to every sort of mahogany. The open grained honduras ought first to be polished with wax and turpen tine to fill up the grain ; but in general this wood looks best with wax and turpentine only ; but if it be tolerably close grained and hard and wants briskness of colour, the above oil will help it much. All hard mahogany of a bad colour should be oiled with it, and should stand un polished a time, proportioned to its quality and texture ofgrain ; if it be laid on hard wood to be polished off immediately, it is of little use ; but if it stand a few days after, the oil penetrates the grain and hardens on the AAA 11 ANA 7 Surface, and consequently will bear a better polish, and Look brighter in colour. ALTITUDE. The perpendicular height of any object See MEASURE. AMBITION is represented in painting by a virgin, cloathed in green, with branches of ivy; standing on a rock and shewing as if if she would leap over it: on this rock are scepters and crowns ; and she is attended with a lion, looking up. The ivy denotes ambition, always growing higher and spoiling the walls ; signify ing that the ambitious spare neither conscience nor country, man nor beast, if they may but become greater than others. AMERICA is represented by a woman with a tawny aspect-having a veil folded over her shoulders ; round her body an artificial ornament of feathers of divers colours ; holding in her hand a bow, and having a quiver on her shoulder, or by her side ; at her feet a human head pierced with an arrow, and on the ground a lizard. This description rather answers to the State of America when first discovered, except we confine it to some of the uncivilized states, which still may bear an accurate resemblance to it. AMPHIPROSTYLE. One of the ancient temples, which had four columns in front, and as many in the prospect behind. AMPHITHEATRE. A circular building in use amongst the Romans, for various exhibitions of wild beasts and gladiaters. These kind of buildings are now entirely out of use, and their remaining ruins are only so many proofs of the folly and barbarity of past ages. ANATOMY. My design in introducing this term, is with a view to what we shall say under the article FIGURE in relation to the parts, proportion, and manner of drawing the human body. This, I presume, will be B4 8 ANT • acceptable to young persons who are desirous of ac quainting themselves with this branch of delineation . Anatomy, literally signifies the dissecting of the human frame, but considered in a more general sense, as it is usually taken, it includes the names, insertions, and œconomy of every part of our wonderful structure. Therefore, as the science of anatomy provides us with ⚫ proper terms for every member of the body, with their due connection and proportion, I have selected from Dr. Bell, such terms and parts as have a necessary con ' nection with drawing the whole body, which, in a com parative view, is but a very small part of anatomy; yet, so much seems necessary to enable us properly to ex press and point out the main parts of the whole figure, as well as duly to conceive of the prominences and cavities of its exterior surface-See the article FIGURE. ANNULET. Small square mouldings or fillets in the Doric capital. These were used in the ancient Doric, and are, preferable to any modern invention . The pro jection of these annulets are one minute each, their height is the same, and three in number; next under the basket or ovalo of the capital. -See DORIC CAPITAL, fig. 7. ANTICHAMBER. A room that leads to the principal apartment or drawing room, where servants wait, or strangers, till they may be spoken to by those on whom they attend. The proportion of the anti-room, may be in length the diagonal of the square of its width ; the width of the room being divided into three, give two of these for the height; or if it be required to be more give five-sevenths. In spacious buildings the anti- room on the first story may have an arched ceiling, which adds to the beauty and magnificence of such apartments. The suit of furniture proper for the anti-chamber, is in style of elegance next to the drawing or saloon • " • 365 · • APO room. Anti- rooms are various, but always have a re lation to some principal room which they join, or are opposite to ; for the word Anti, which is Greek, signi fies against, answerable to, or opposite to any thing. Hence, in royal palaces there are, or may be, anti saloon, anti-banqueting, and anti-drawing rooms, which have their furniture partly to agree with the room they lead to. ANTIQUE is generally applied to such painting and sculpture, or architecture, as were executed at the period, when these arts arrived to their utmost perfec tion amongst the Greeks and Romans. ANTIQUES. An irregular composition of men, beasts, birds, fishes, flowers, and such like, merely fanciful, as on the walls of the Vatican at Rome, painted by Raphael-These kind of ornaments had their origin amongstthe Grecians, who adorned the friezes of their temples with such kinds of figures as best suited and represented the idols that were worshipped in them. See ARABESQUE. APERTURE, in architecture, any opening to admit of light or air, as windows, doors. Painters, when they want a principal light, sometimes suppose an aperture where there is none in appearance. APOPHYGE, in architecture, is the hollow next the shaft ofa column. See plate 8 , fig. 2, at e. Observe the fillet or cincture projects four minutes from the shaft, which are to be divided into five ; then place six of those parts upwards on the shaft, and draw a line out, on which lay on the said six parts which will be the center, by which to describe the Apophyge. In the Tuscan order this is nothing more than a quadrant, but in all the others, this rule must be regarded as the base ; and also at the collarino or top of the shaft next the astragal, or neck of the capital. See CAPITAL, fig. 7, at b, 10 APP APPEARANCE, in perspective, is the representation of any figure or object on the plane of the picture, or as the said object describes itself on an upright transparent plane, interposed between the object and the eye of the spectator. The appearance in magnitude will be as the distance of the original object from the plane of the picture is to the distance of the eye from that plane. Suppose in fig. 2. A. B. the front of a house, and C. a person in a room on the opposite side of the street. The rays directed to his eye are intersected at e, f, on the window which is the appearance of the height of the opposite front; but if C. be removed further from the window, then will e, f, increase in magnitude, or if A. B. the front of the house be brought nearer to e, f, the same increase will be effected. Hence it is, that by standing near to any window, in order to view the op posite side of the street, we are able to take in more on the perspective plane which the window is to the spectator ; for as vision is performed by rays of light, directed to the pupil of the eye, in right lines, as shewn by the lines in fig. 2. so it is evident by barely inspect ing it, that the image or representation of the object we view will occupy a smaller space on the window as we approach to it : so that by placing our eye about eight inches distance from a common sized square of a win dow, about the space of three common sized fronts of houses, describe themselves on that square ; or in other words they will be perceived or appear within the said limits. APPEARANCE of any original right line, is in repre sentation a right line. C, D, fig. 1. is an original right line, and being perpendicular to the picture, it will vanish in s the center; therefore draw C, s, and s , d, the distance ; then a line from Dto d intersecting at E gives C, E the image or appearance of the original line DC ARA 11 the perspective plane. That side of any object which is originally parallel to the picture, will assume the same figure on the plane of the picture as its original. Consider 1, 2, 3, 4, pl. 2 fig. 1. at P. as the side of a cube placed parallel to the picture. Draw the visuals 1 d 2 d and their intersections at 5, 6, and as Fwill be parallel, from these points raise perpendiculars, intersecting the visuals 1s 2s and the image will be found a perfect square as its original. The same may be said of a circle placed parallel to the picture. In fig. 4 let A B C Dbe considered as a circle placed parallel to the picture a, b, c, d, and the spectator viewing it through a transparent medium. Now it is evident that it must appear a circle of a smaller size on that plane ; since by drawing the rays from each point in the original to the pupil ; a parallel section of these rays is produced by the picture at g, h, i, k, the image of the circle ; for each ray cuts its correspondent diagonal and diameters in both figures, as is clear by inspecting them. The same holds true in any poligonal figure. APRIL is represented like a young man in green, adorned with a garland of myrtle and hawthorn buds, winged; holding in one hand flowers, peculiar to this month, and in the other the sign of the zodiac, Taurus; be cause the sun passes through this sign in April. AQUEDUCT. An artificial canal for conveying water from one place to another, either above or under ground. These have been carried over vast vallies, by means of arches, in the form of a bridge, so that water might find a direct course from hill to hill, to any distance. ARABESQUE. Arabian like. ARABESQUE ORNAMENTS, are those which have no figures of beasts, birds, or of the human kind, consist ing only of various foliages, flowers, and stems. These are distinguished from the antique ornaments, which 12 ARC included every thing that the mind could fancy for deco ration-See ANTIQUE. The difference of these species of ornaments, are founded on two religious principles The Arabs, who follow Mahomet, were forbidden to paint human or animal figures ; the Pagans worshipped some animals, at least, considering them as the vehicle or symbols of the respective idol they received or repre sented, and therefore painted them about their temples. ARCH. Any portion of a circle not more than a semi , that is, in an architectural sense, for no arch can be more, either in wood or stone. The opinion of the best architects is, that no form of an arch can equal the semi- circular one, both for strength and elegance. There are however some eliptic arches, which answer as well in some situations, and look as elegant. The quantity of any arch is easily found, by drawing the cord line 1 , 2, fig. 7, pl . 2 ; from the centre of which, raise the perpendicular a 3 ; then draw the half cord to 2, 5, from which raise a perpendicular, which cutting the other at 6, gives the centre of the arch. Lastly, by drawing a line parallel to the cord line 1 , 2 , through the centre 6, it is easily seen how much less or more this arch is than half a circle, for each simi being divided into 170° , and the quadrant into 90 ° , the difference is soon ascertained when the quadrant is found, as the figure shews. This figure also teaclics how to find the centre of any arch, whether more or less than a semi. To represent an arch in perspective-first, if it be parallel to the picture, as the arches of a bridge gene rally are in landscape, as in fig. 3, plate 2, where ob serve the line drawn across the river, on which are placed the piers and spaces of the arches c, c, c. The centre of the picture is at s, where I have placed the spectator, ARC 13 who is viewing the bridge from a boat, so that every object is drawn as they would appear to him in that situation : the figure is thus introduced, that it may be more striking to the learner in perspective and landscape. In representing these arches in this parallel situation, nothing more is required than to find the centre of each arch, as at c, c, c, and with the compass describe the arches ; then from these centres draw lines to s, the centre of the picture ; and provided the width of the bridge be half the diameter of the small arches, draw from the centre c of the left hand small arch to dthe distance, and it cuts at b ; whence draw another line across the river, and you have at 0, 0, 0, the centre for the other side of the arches. Set one foot of the com pass at o, and contract the other till it touch b, and turn the foot till it touch the front side, and so of the next. To represent an arch, whose side is perpendicular to the picture, as in fig. 5, let 1 , 2, 3, be the quarter plan of the circle, and 1 , 5, the square of the pier of the arch, from thence draw lines to s, and let d be the distance. From ' t draw to d, which will be the diagonal of the pier, which draw to 6, parallel to the ground line ; from 6 draw to d, and you have the centre at g, from which you have a perpendicular ; repeat the ope ration from g, and you find the other quarter of the arch and the square of the last pier by the same line. Suppose the spring of the arch at 8, draw to s, and you have the center, from c draw the diagonals a, and do the same on the other side of the arch. Take from the plan o 4, and place it from b to o, and from o draw lines to s, cutting the diagonal of the arch in the points, through which the line of the arch is to pass. The same operation must be performed on the other side, in 14 ARC order to obtain the true intersection of that part of the arch which is seen. ARCHITECTURE. This term is vastly comprehensive when understood in its full extent ; including the whole art of building ofevery species : as aquatic architecture, or the building of bridges of stone, wood, and iron ; or nautical architecture, including ship building in all its branches. That kind, however, which connects itself with the design ofthis work, is chiefly the working and drawing of the several parts of the five orders, and the ornaments peculiar to each, which see under their articles respect ively. The figurative representation of this noble art, in painting, is a woman sitting on part of a column, surrounded with various tools and instruments, looking intensely upon a draught on her lap. Behind her is a person representing Reason, who also is looking upon a design or drawing. On her head is a helmet, in her left hand Pallas's shield; and in her right hand Mercury's caduceus. ARCHITRAVE, in architecture, signifies the principal In the en beam on which the whole building rests. tablature, which includes cornice, frieze, and architrave, the architrave is the lowest, resting on the corona of the capital. The Doric architrave is quite plain, serving as a ground to the Conic drops peculiar to that order. For the proportions of the architraves of each order, see the article ANTABLATURE, and for specimens of modern ones, for doors and windows, see plate 8. ARCHIVAULT or ARCHIVOLT. The inner contour of an arch or a band, adorned with mouldings, running over the faces of the arch stones, and bearing upon the imposts. It has only one face in the Tuscan order, two in the Doric and Ionic, crowned, and the same ARM 15 mouldings as the architraves of the Corinthian and Composite orders. ARCHIVE. A chamber for records, 'charters, and other papers, used by Romans. ARÆOSTYLE. The largest intercollumniation or space between columns, including four diameters at the lower part of the shaft. AREA. Any plain surface in geometry, the superficial contents ofany figure. Thus, if a table top be a square, whose sides are four feet, the area is sixteen feet. To measure anyboard or floor, is to find the contents ofthe area-Thus 7 If a board be 9 feet 3 inches in length, EXAMPLE. by 2 feet 10 in width, say twice 9 are 18 -twice 3 are 6-then 10 times 9 are 90, the 12's in 90 are 7, and 6 remain-Lastly, 10 times 3 are 30, which only produce 2 18 inches and 6 parts, therefore the real con tent is 26 feet 2 inches and 6 parts of an inch. See article MEASURE, where the 26 subject is more fully considered. ARISTOCRACY is represented as a lady in the prime of her years, attired in a splendid habit, sitting majestically in a chair of state, a crown of gold on her head, hold ing in her right hand a bundle of rods bound together, and a garland of laurel ; and in her left, a head piece. On her right side is a bason and purse full of gold and precious jewels, and on her left hand an axe. ARM. Variously applied to any thing which sustains or holds up. The arms of a wardrobe in the cupboard part, or wings in which clothes are hung, turn round on a swivel, hooked to a rod, which for strength is made of beech, and coloured. Ft. Ins. 9 S 2 106992 6 2 6 16 ARM ARMS of a chair, of which there are four patterns in plate 2. No. 1 , 2 , and 4, whether made of beech, or mahogany, should have the toe carved. No. 3 may have the ornament painted with carving. ARM-CHAIR . Of arm-chairs there are a great variety, which I shall attend to as far as the limited nature of this performance will admit of. And in a note for this purpose I have given a plate of the outlines of arm chairs on a small scale, not only as a memorandum, but that I may describe them more intelligibly to those who are unacquainted with their structure and size. The shaded arm-chairs in plate 3 are intended for drawing-rooms, except No. 1 , which I think will look best for a parlour carved in mahogany. No. 2 has a stuffed top rail, as also the square pannel in the back. This chair would look well in mahogany, with a brass bead round the stuffing to hide the tacks, &c. and which produces a lively effect. No. 3 will look well in painted black rose wood and gold. ARM-CHAIR for free- masons ; see plate 4. This chair I The pro suppose to be in style for the grand master. portion is in front 3 feet 3 by 31 inches high at the seat. The whole height to the top of the canopy is 8 feet 6 inches, the rest of the measure will follow in course. The genii in front are placing the steps, on which the master is to ascend the chair. The ornaments are in some respects emblematic of the profession of free-masonry, which, according to that fraternity, had a very antient and honourable foundation. The circle in the back of the chair, is formed by a frame, and stuffed, let into a rabbit, and screwed be hind. The representation of the sun is painted on can vas, and the stuff covered with it. The small circles ARM 17 which represent the earth and moon, with two planets above, may be carved in wood, and painted. The other parts of the chair should be in white and gold, or all gold. The back feet form Corinthian pillars, and the arms are supported by eagles, to denote the subli mity of the art. The books, compass, and stars in front, with the triangle in the upper part of the entablature, shew that it is connected with geometry and astronomy. The canopy has a cornice ornamented with globules, behind which is a drapery valence tacked to a tester, which supports the whole. The curtain on each side draws round to inclose the whole occasionally. The masonic arm-chair in plate 5 is intended to stand on cach side of the grand master's, for the accommodation of those next in rank. This is in the Doric style, to indicate the antiquity of the institution . The metope of the entablature have alternately the sun and moon carved in the mahogany. The back on each side of the stuffing is formed in imitation of the Doric soffits. This chair is to be on a smaller scale than the other. The front 30 inches wide by 2 feet high, and the whole height about 6 feet . ARM-CHAIR for a library, or a reading chair ; see plate 5. These are intended to make the exercise easy, and for the convenience of taking down a note or quotation from any subject. The reader places himself with his back to the front of the chair, and rests his arms onthe top yoke. The desk is moveable to any point in the circumference of the yoke or top rail, by means of a grove cut in the wood, and plates of iron screwed on. Before these plates are screwed all round the top yoke, there must be tee headed iron plates screwed to the un derside of the piece of mahogany, about 1 wide, which is made hollow at one edge to fit the top, to which the 2 с 18 ARM desk is hinged. These being screwed on, this piece is put to its place, and the tee-headed irons go into the groove ; then, lastly, the thin plates are screwed, so that the tee-headed plates are kept in, but not so confined as to prevent its moving about. To the underside of this movable piece is sometimes fixed a long and narrow drawer for ink and pens. Also, it must be observed, that to the under side of this same piece is tenoned a rail of mahogany half an inch thick, which is cut in notches to receive a foot, by which the reading flap is supported to any position, as shewn in the plate. The whole height of this chair may be 31 or 32 inches, over the seat 19, from the inside of back to front 21 , the height of seat 16, between the back feet 12, or more sometimes, and the opening of the top yoke 25 by 17 inches from the depth of the arch, which is con siderably more than a semi. The size of the read ing flap is 12 by 16 inches long. ARM-CHAIRS, plate 6, are what I call Curricles, from their being shaped like that kind of carriage. These may claim entire originality, and are well adapted for dining parlours, being of a strong form, easy and con veniently low, affording easier access to a dining table than the common kind. The size of the front may be 爨 2 feet over all, and nearly that from back to front. ARM-CHAIRS HERCULANEUMS, plate 7, which I have so named on account of their antique style of composi tion. No. 1 is peculiarly adapted to rooms, fitted up not only in the antique taste, but where apartments are appro priated for the purpose of exhibiting ancient or modern curiosities ; and we particularly recommend them for the use of music rooms. No. 2 is adapted to the sa loon, being more massy and enriched than the other. Much depends upon the execution of these particularly ARM 19 in the carving part, and for the sake of proceeding with certainty, a full-sized drawing ought to be made in or der to judge of the effect. In plate 8 are given most of the arm-chairs now in use. No. 1 , is a cabriole arm-chair stuffed all over. The legs are mahogany. See CABRIOLE. ARM-CHAIR, No. 2, is a fauteuil, having a moulded top rail and arm, and turned stumps, which are either gilt orpainted. But this pattern will suit best to be gilt, on account of the legs, which have heads. -See the article FAUTEUIL. ARM-CHAIR, No. 3, is termed a hunting chair. These are stuffed all over, except the legs, which are of ma hogany. The slide out frame in the front, when it is brought out to the full length, is intended to support the loose back cushion, which brings it even with the seat of the chair, and forms a temporary resting place for onethat is fatigued, as hunters generally are. These chairs are sometimes made without the sliding front, on which account they are made larger by a few inches each way. ARM-CHAIR, No. 4, is for a bed occasionally, or nearly for the same purpose as a hunting chair. The design shews a trunk below the seat, which is intended for the bed clothes. When the frame is folded quite down, within the seat, the cushion is placed upon it, and the back cushion being loose, is laid upon the frame when opened out, so that both of them make up nearly the whole length of the frame Observe, when the whole is folded in, there is a case of cotton, &c. to hide the whole. • ARM-CHAIR, No. 5, is a bergere, having a caned back and arms. Sometimes the seats are caned, having loose cushions. The top rail and arms are moulded to agree all round. The stumps and legs turned, and the frames generally painted. ASH ARM-CHAIR for a camp, made to fold up, the back and bottom of which are formed of girth-webbing, as shewn in the design. 20 ARM-CHAIR, No. 6, is a tub easy chair, stuffed all over, and is intended for sick persons, being both easy and warm ; for the side wings coming quite forward keep out the cold air, which may be totally excluded from the person asleep, by laying some kind of covering over the whole chair. And here I intreat the reader to observe, that this plate is given not as a specimen of new pattern chairs, but of the uncommon kind, to help the memory, by affixing the particular sizes to each part, as shewn in the plate. The numbers are all of them in inches. ASH, of which there are six sorts, but by some, only three, Mr. Wheeler says, of this genus are reckoned three species- Ist. with small leaves sawed, and flowers without petals, as to common Ash tree. - 2. With smaller leaves sawed, and flowers having petals, ( i.c. the flowers divided into parts or leaves) .- 3. With the smaller leaves very entire, and taper foot-stalks. The common Ash is a native of most part ofEurope, and particularly of England. The second sort grows naturally in the southern part of Europe ; and the third in Virginia. These trees are propagated, by sowing the seeds as soon as they are ripe: the ground where they are sown should be kept clean all the summer, and not disturbed, and when the plants come up, they must be kept clean from weeds during summer; and if they make good progress in the seed bed, they will be fit for transplanting in autumn, as soon as their leaves begin to fall ; and to prevent injuring their roots, they should be taken up by a spade, placing them a foot and a half distance in rows three feet asunder. In this nursery they remain two years, at the end of which, ASP 21 they will be strong enough to plant in the places where they are to remain . ” Mr. Emerick, one of His Majesty's surveyors of forests, says, " that the Ash grows rapidly in fat land, but does not agree with a wet soil. The leaves of the ash being good food for horn cattle , it is very profitable to sow extensive tracts of land with it." Ash is reckoned in strength next to the oak, and is much in use amongst wheelers, plow-makers, and country wrights. The best season for felling these trees is thought to be between November and February ; at any other time they are subject to worms. ASHLAR. A term used to denote common free stones, as they come rough out of the quarry, of different lengths and thicknesses. ASHLERING, quartering to tack to in garrets, about 2 feet 6 inches long, perpendicular to the floor, up to the under side of the rafters. ASIA is represented in painting as a woman decked with flowers and fruit, clothed in a rich robe, holding in her right hand branches, with roots of casia, pepper, and cloves, and in her left a censer smoaking, and by her a camel on its knees. The emblem may be thus ex plained the flowers and fruit denote, that Asia produces delightful odoriferous things ; her garments richly em broidered, the great plenty of stores ; the bundle of spices, that she distributes them to other parts of the world. ASPALATHUS, African broom. Of this genus there are 19 species, all of which are natives of warm cli mates, and must be preserved in stoves by those who would cultivate them here. The rose-wood, whence the oleum rhodii is obtained, is one of the species, but of which we have yet had no particular description. The wood is heavy, oleaginous, somewhat sharp and bitter to the taste, of a strong smell, and purple colour. 22 ATR It is called rose- wood, or lignum rhodium, either on ac count of its sweet smell, or of its growth in the island of Rhodes. It affords an oil of an admirable scent, re puted one of the best perfumes. British Encyclop. ASPHALTUM. It is originally a solid bituminous sub stance, ofa brownish black, but when mixed with var nish, and exposed to heat, turns a fine black. It may be had at colour shops, ready for use, of a consistence near to that of japanners' gold size ; and, if necessary, be mixed with a little ivory black, finely ground, to lay upon glass, or other hard bodies. Some prefer burnt lamp black, being more of a body colour than the former, but either will do. may In blacking glass, take the pure asphaltum, or the black varnish, of which it is the chief ingredient, and having aired the glass gently, lay it on, and let it dry by the fire, then add coats repeatedly till you obtain a fine black. See GILDING ON GLASS. ASSEMBLAGE, in architecture, is the placing of order over order in a due manner ; first, the Tuscan ; second, the Doric ; third , the Ionic ; and fourth, the Corinthian. The strongsupporting the weak all the wayup. In placing them each axis must be in the same perpendicular. ASTRAGAL, in architecture, a small round moulding, like a ring on the shaft of a column. It is generally divided into three parts, two of which are for the round. ATLANTIDES, a name for the Persian male figures employed in ancient architecture of the Lacedamonians. -See CARYATIDES. ATRIUM, grand entrance or hall of the ancient Greek and Roman houses. Palladio, from Vitruvius, describes five different species of these : the Tuscan, that which had four pillars , the Corinthian, the Testudinated, and that which was open. The Tuscan atrium was divided into three in length, two of which was for its breadth. That which had four ―――― ATT 23 pillars, was thus distinguished : the proportion was to divide the length into five, and take three for the width of the atrium. These pillars were placed at each angle of the hall, at a distance from the wall equal to one-fifth of their height. • 尊 The width of the atrium being measured from the in -side of these pillars, exclusive of the wings, and the length including these. The plan of the walls must therefore have been square, as is described by Mr. Hop pus in his Palladio. The order of these pillars was Corinthian, having their lower diameter equal to one half of the wing, or

their distance from the wall, which was 64 feet Inthe

roof there was an aperture, or opening, one-third ofthe -width ofthe hall, with ballustrades round it. The Corinthian atrium was in length the diagonal of the square of its width, and the wings one-seventh each of the whole length. It had on each side four pillars of the Composite order, placed from each other at equal distances, The opening in the middle is one-third of the width of the hall taken between the pillars. The Testudinated atrium, or that which was after the form of a tortoise, had its plan bearing the same proportion as the Corinthian, the height of which was its width reaching to the architrave of the roof. We may form some idea of the magnificence of those apart ments, by the proportion ofthe Composite pillars used in those of Corinthian structure. The height of these pil lars were 35 feet, their diameter 34 feet, and being placed 8 feet from each other, the length of the hall must have been 52 feet, at least, but in English feet about 61 , for the Venetian foot used by Palladio, was nearly two-twelfths more. ATTIC, after the manner of Attica, a Grecian province, of which Athens was the metropolis. 24 AUR The Attic order in building, is to have the appearance ofthe front so as to hide the roof. The attic story is low, and placed on the other or ders, next the roof, having square windows between the pilasters. The order consists of a pilaster placed over the columns or pilasters of the other orders. On these attic pilasters are sometimes placed balls or vases for orna ments. The height of it is in proportion to the order below it, which is never less than one-fourth, but gene rally one-third of the height. Its diameter is the same as the column on which it rests, and placed perpendicu larly over it. The height of the attic pilaster is, by some, divided into nine equal parts, one of which is the height of the cornice, which, being divided into 10 equal parts, 12 of these are the height of the plinth . The torus on the plinth is two of these parts, and its fillet one half. The attic base is of a peculiar kind, used in the Ionic order by the antient architects ; and also by Palladio, and other moderns in the Doric. It certainly is one of the most beautiful of all the bases. -See BASE. ATTITUDE, in sculpture and painting, is the expressive posture of a figure, by which we discover the action it is engaged in, and also the feelings of the mind. Such figures are said by artists to be impressive, and will always prove attractive to judges. ATTRIBUTES, in carving and painting, are the symbols of the peculiar characters ascribed to those figures with which they are connected : as a harp is the attribute of the idol Apollo, a club of Hercules, a trident of Neptune, a palm of Victory, &c. AUREOLA. Originally signifies a jewel of gold, or of the colour of gold, from the latin word aureolus , which signifies shining like gold, or of the worth of gold. A jewel of this kind was given by the Romans, as a reward 1 1 1

24aG BAC 25 of victory, in some public disputes ; hence figuratively applied to the reward of martyrs, &c. which, by painters, is represented to signify the crown of glory with which they adorn the heads of saints. AXIS. In an optical or perspective sense is the ray which passes from the centre of the picture perpendicularly, to the pupil of the eye ; or it is that ray which proceeding from the centre of the luminous cone, falls perpen dicularly on the chrystaline humour, consequently passes through the centre ofthe eye. AXIS. In a geometrical sense, is a line round which any figure or body revolves. So in the Ionic volute, a line may be imagined to pass through each opposite eye, round which the volute turns, which may be conceived as the axis of the volute. Axis. In peritrochio, one of the five mechanical powers. -See MECHANIC. B BACK BOARD. In common drawers are made plain, of half-inch deal ; but in good work, of inch stuff, framed sometimes into two, and sometimes four pannels. -In horse or screen dressing glasses, the back board is framed in four pannels of light clean mahogany, half-inch thick, rabbeted for a quarter-inch pannel of soft Hon duras, as light wood as possible, that the whole frame may add as little to the weight of the glass as possible, and only require a moderate lead-weight to balance it. The inner edge of the framing is stuck with an ovalo or quarter round. The back boards or blind frames of large glasses, are made of 1½ inch deal, into four or six pannels, and thin back boards ploughed into the framing, to save the .26 BAC silvering. Before the glass is laid on to the blind frame, thin flannel is tacked over the framing, to serve as a soft bedding for the silver. BACK PAINTING. This is a pleasing and simple art of painting on glass, by first transferring the mezzotinto black prints to a piece of fine glass, free of flints. This is done by boiling the print, or soaking it in clean water till it is soft, when it is taken out, and laid between two other papers, over which place two more, after these papers have drawn up the water from the print, then take the glass, and place it within the warm air of the fire ; and having procured Strasburg turpentine, warm it till it becomes fluid, which, with the hog's-hair brush, spread even over the glass, which, to keep in due temperature, should be laid on a warm board. Then take the print from between the papers, and lay it on to the glass, beginning at one end, and rubbing it down gently as you proceed, so as to prevent the air bubbles from disturbing the print. Proceed then to roll or rub off the paper with your fingers, with care, till the whole appears black like the print transferred on the glass, which then must be set to dry ; after which it must be varnished with clear var nish, and then it is fit for painting upon. This being done, prepare the oil colours very stiff, and lay on such colours as the print requires to suit the subject . The shadows of the print are generally sufficient to effect the colours laid on with a proper shade ; but if any should be too faint, mix a shadow in oil, and first wipe off what was laid on before, and lay on the shade first, or next the glass , and then soften off from that to the lighter parts of the print. Painting may be performed on glass without a print, by persons skilled in drawing and painting on paper or canvass. This I have attempted by first sketching the BAL 27 view with a little white on the glass. Having thus prepared the glass, begin with the sky, next the horizon ; first with a mixture of lake, then softened towards orange, then a yellowish grey ; lastly, a little more blue. For the distances, proceed first with a purplish grey, suitable to the tinge produced by such a sky reflecting on the most distant hills. And observe, that the true colours must be laid on at first, for they cannot be altered as in the usual way of painting. And further, that the shadows must be laid on first, and then softened off, with the lights joined to them, and blended in. But it is in vain for any to attempt this mode of painting, till they can master a landscape on paper or canvass. BAGUETTE. In architecture, a small round moulding, less than an astragal : so called because it resembles a ring. BALCONY. In architecture is a projecture from the front of any building, supported by pillars or consoles. Their use is to afford some pleasing prospect, and give an easy opportunity of regaling in the air. When they are made large, they occupy the centre of some wall, on the first floor. Sometimes they are over the front door, and serve as a shelter as well as an ornament to the main entrance. They ought never to be placed near the angles of a house, least they should weaken the building. Balconies are now sometimes continued the whole length of the front, without adding any thing to the usual width of the aperture or window which leads to them . These are composed of stone and iron ballusters. -In London, and some other cities, in modern build ings, balconies are fixed to each window on the first floor, and the windows are brought to a level with it, which gives additional light to the drawing-room, and 28 BAL renders it convenient for placing a flower-pot in them, which is the chief use of such balconies. As modern balconies, on account of their lightness,. have a pleasing effect in the front of a neat house, I have given a small sketch of one as executed in the newest building in London, which, I presume, will gratify some of my country friends- See plate 11. And the front is greatly improved by the manner in which the first story is rusticated, which finishes close up to the under side of the balcony. The square channels which form the rustic work, is not wider than one-tenth of the depth of the quoins, and not more in depth than half their width. Their length extends from window to window, without any crossing joints. BALDACHIN. A building or piece of architecture in the form ofa canopy, supported by pillars. The cover ing over the masonic chair is of this kind-See plate 4. These were also employed as a crown or covering for altars. BALNEARY, a bathing room. BALUSTRADE, a series or row of balustres joined by a rail, for defence or ornament, on balconies, terraces, altars, or the like. The baths, and some other apart ments of the antients, were sometimes separated by balustrades ; but the baths, in particular, were encom passed with them. The word expressing that separation, was balustrum, from which are derived balustrade and baluster, a single pillar vulgarly termed banister. The proportion of balustrades is ruled by the kind of entablature they are connected with, particularly when they are used as an ornament with which to finish the front of a building, where columns or pilasters are used. In this case the height of the balustrade should be four fifths, or two-thirds of the entablature on which they are placed, not including. the zocholo or little plinth on BAN 29 · which the balustrade rests ; which zocholo must be pro portioned to the height of the whole building, and the projecture of the cornice on which they rest, that the whole of the balustrade may appear to the eye at a moderate distance from the building. The balustrade itself, or the four-fifths of the entablature they are con nected with, is to be divided into 13 equal parts, eight of which are given to the height of the baluster, three for the base, and two for the cornice or rail. One of these parts may serve as a module, and being divided into nine equal parts, as minutes, bywhich to proportion the smaller parts. The height of the plinth of the baluster is one module, or ninth part, its width two modules. The corona of the cap is one ninth part, and the base, including a torus and scotia, one ninth. The belly of the baluster touches the right line drawn from the plinth to the corona, which are each alike in di mension. BAMBOE, or BAMBOO, a kind of Indian recd, which in the east is used for chairs. These are, in some degree, imitated in England, by turning beech into the same form , and making chairs of this fashion, painting them to match the colour of the reeds or cane. These reeds or canes are said to grow sometimes to the height of 60 feet, and 5 or 6 inches in diameter. They are of a shining yellow colour, and are so hard and durable, that they are used in building. These, when they are bored through a kind of membrane at their joints, are used for water pipes. BAND, or BANDELET. A term used to denote a flat moulding in architecture and cabinet making. In the Doric order there is a band running along the archi trave, crossing the tiriglyph , and another above, as a crowning member to it. In cabinet work, banding is of a threefold kind.

30 BAN Straight banding is when thin wood is cut lengthwise of the grain. Cross banding is when it is cut across the grain. Lastly, feather banding is cut in an angle between the two. BANQUETING ROOM, or SALOON. The ancient Romans supped in the altrium, or grand entrance hall, of which see ALTRIUM, But in after-times they adopted a more magnificent plan, in imitation of the Egyptian banqueting-house. It is said that the infamous Nero, the Roman Emperor, who reigned in the first age of the Christian æra, caused one to be built which exceeded all that had been seen before. He named it Domus Auria, or the house of gold, which, by the circular motions of its partitions and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the heavens, and represented the differ ent seasons of the year, which changed at every service, and showered down flowers, essences, and perfumes, on the guests. It is said that the banqueting rooms of the Egyptians were from 100 to 150 feet in length , and in breadth somewhat more than half the length. At the upper end, and along the two sides, they placed rows of columns, according to the architecture of those days. At the lower part they made a magnificent entrance, extending nearly the whole width of the room, including its ornaments. Upon the pillars thus ranged they placed an architrave, and probably some sort of cornice. On this architrave they built a wall, and placed three quarter columns on each side, over the lower pillars. In proportion, they were one fourth less than the first. Between these three-quarter columns, were placed the windows that enlightened the building. From the tops ofthe lower pillars to the outside wall, was laid a floor. This covered the portico within, formed by the lower range of columns, and made on the outside a platform, BAR 31 which was surrounded with a corridor, with rails and balusters. Thus terraced, it served as a place to walk upon. It is not easy to determine in what manner the Egyptians furnished such rooms, but it appears that the chief ornaments were the statues which were placed in them. BARK. The exterior part of trees, corresponding to the skin of an animal . The bark of trees is twofold, the outer and inner. The outer bark of the trunk, consists of a coarse fibry texture, and the inner is replete with fatty juices, by means whereof the cold is kept out, and even the frost in winter; whence it is, that some sorts of trees are evergreens. This inner part of the bark annually lignifies, or turns to wood. Therefore the bark of a tree is found to divide itself in a contrary direction each year : the outer part gives toward the exterior crusty bark, which at length falls off, whilst a portion of the inmost bark is added to the wood as it lignifies, and being thus incorporated, the diameter of the tree increases, and appears in ringlets or layers at the end when they are cut. But as the tree in creases in mature growth, these external ringlets, or strata of young wood, are gradually distributed to, and condensed with the heart of the wood, so that they disappear gradually towards the centre of the tree. Hence, I presume, arises the difference between centre and outside boards of wood of any kind, particularly of mahogany ; for the external boards partaking more of the nature of the vegetative sap, in connection with the internal bark, the grain is necessarily produced in parallel and a right lined direction ; for the internal bark being composed of a vast number of lignous fibres, or threads, compressed together by the external air, and nourished by the sap which ascends from the root, they naturally grow in right lines, Hence we observe that outside 32 BAR 1 thingow boards run plain without figure , and straight grained . This , I think , will account for a fact observed by cabinet -makers , that outside wood dries soonest , works tenderest, and stands the truest when glued . That it dries the soonest is owing to the speedy evaporation of the vegetative sap , by means of air, which sooner affects outside boards , by reason of the straightness of the grain , which , as it thus dries , is compressed together in parallel directions , and thus becomes one solid body, not so liable to warp by oblique springs or forces , produced by cross grained wood. Yet the advantage that it gains in this re spect , is lost in some others ofmore consequence , i . e. as to strength and beauty , for as the sap easily evaporates, it becomes at length wholly exhausted of it , and then rots , and breaks by slight pressures . Hence the wood nearest the centre is the strongest, and most durable , andgenerally most beautiful , as it retains and matures more ofthe ori ginal sap of which the wood is constituted, andby which it is nourished . The configuration of wood arises pro bably from the abublitions of the natural juice or sap , in a confined state , which , like water amongst stones , is twisted and turned into waving and serpentine forms . Under this term it will not be impertinent to notice the opinion of botanists relative to the importance of preserving the bark of trees . It appears from the experiments of M. Buffon , that trees stripped of their bark the whole length of the stems , die in about three or four years

but being cut down at

this period , the timber is heavier , more uniformly dense, stronger, and fitter for service , than if cut down at the time of growing . This agrees with what has been observed on the sap of trees , for when it is exhausted in some degree , the wood is better . And this is the case with a tree that has its bark cut off in the spring about May, when it ascends up to every branch , but having no· BAS 33 bark, its supplies are stopped, and it feeds on itself for three years, during which time the sap exhausts, and the wood matures. But if a young tree have its bark cut round to the wood, all that part above the cut will die gradually, though it may bear fruit the first year after. BAR. A piece of wood laid across a passage or door to hinder entrance. In chair making it is usually applied to upright square pieces of mahogany, about a quarter thick one way, and three quarters the other, which form sometimes the whole, and at other times only a part of the baluster or back. BASE. In architecture it applies to the lower part of the column of every order except the ancient Doric, which had no base ; but in the modern has adopted the attic one, and sometimes only the Tuscan torus, with the addition of a bead. The pedestal of each order has also a base peculiar to itself; and both kind of bases have their plinth, on which they rest. It is contended by some, that the plinth is no part of the base ; as the plinth was first in use, then the base, afterwards the pedestal . But in the general divisions of . each full order, assigned by all modern architects, the base includes the plinth, and both are 30 minutes in height, and their projection 10, in the Tuscan ; and the remaining four each 11 . No. 1. The Tuscan base, the height of the plinth is 15 minutes, which is equal to the torus and fillet, so that the whole are 30 minutes, which some archi tects term a module, others but half a one. These minutes are numbered in the heights of each member, and the several toruses and cavetos being semis and quadrants, there is no need to confuse the plate with D 34 BAS

inserting the projections. Thus if the height of the Tuscan torus be divided into 12 equal parts, that will serve as a scale for all the rest, as shewn in the Tuscan base. It must be observed that the scotias of each base are elliptical, or, more strictly speaking, are portions of two circles of different radii joined to each other ; to draw which see the composite base, where the height of the scotia is divided into seven equal parts, three of which are for the diameter of the upper or small circle ; then turning the arch, and raising a perpendicular from the extremity, as the figure shews, lay on this line four of those parts, from which centre draw through that of the small circle, and the line will shew where the large circle is to commence, which is described from s, the centre ofthat arch. No. 2. is the Doric base ; its plinth is 14 minutes high. No. 3. The Ionic base of the moderns, or the Attic See the article ATTIC. The plinth is 10 minutes high. No. 4. The Corinthian ; its plinth the same in height. No. 5. The Composite base ; and its plinth nine. minutes. -See pl. 11 . BASE-LINE, in perspective, is that which is produced by the plan of the picture intersecting the ground plane. On this base-line is placed the original length and width of objects, according to some scale or known propor tion. When the height of such objects is to be deter mined, a perpendicular line is drawn from the base-line, on which is placed the original measurement, and a line is drawn to the point of sight, or some other vanishing point on the horizontal line. -See PERSPECTIVE . BASEMENT, in architecture, is a mode of decorating a part, and sometimes the whole of the first story. On BAS 35 these basements, in superb buildings, are placed orders of columns over each other. In this case the basement occupies a space at least half of the height of that order which is placed upon it-sometimes the whole, but generally two-thirds of the whole order. The usual method of enriching these basements, is with rustics of different kinds. In Palladio's buildings, these rustics are generally smooth faced, and the joints betweenthem square, about one quarter of the height of the rustics, which were half the diameter of the column above the basement. These rustics varied in length as occasion required. We see some of them in his build ings running the whole length of the space between the windows. But in general the length is a little more than twice the height of the longest ; and the shortest sometimes one-third, and one-half of the longest. - Some architects give to the square jointed rustics only one eighth part of its height ; the depth of which joint is equal to their width. The rustics which are cham fered, form a rectangular channel, when two of them are placed together, the diagonal of which is from one third to one-fourth of the height of the rustic. BASILICA. A public hall, or court of justice. The word is from Caging, which in Greek denotes a royal house or palace. In these halls or courts, even princes, as well as magistrates, sat to administer justice : hence their name Basilica. The Roman Basilice were covered, by which they were distinguished from the fora, which were open roofed, and exposed to the air. The Basilica Julia, which Vetruvius speaks of, was supported by 100 marble pillars in four rows, and en riched with decorations of gold and precious stones. In it were thirteen tribunals, or judgment seats, where the prætors sat to dispatch causes. BASON-STAND. A piece of furniture much in use, 36 BAS and as generally known. As a help to the memory we shall take notice of their size and variety. The com mon square bason-stand is generally made of common Honduras wood, with legs of one inch stuff ; the size from 13 to 15 or 16 inches square, and 34 high. The stretcher ought not to be less than 13 inches from the under side of the drawer, to allow sufficient height for the bottle. These kind of bason-stands are sometimes inclosed to the drawer to form a cupboard with folding covers, the rims of which are made of three-quarter inch mahogany, rabbeted, for half inch mahogany, sometimes solid, or otherwise veneered. The cupboard door is made in one, clamped and veneered. But when they are made of a large size, about 18 inches square, the door is divided in two, rabbeted in the middle, and fastened by a turn buckle, to suit the knobs on the drawers. Corner Bason-stands, with three legs, having the two front ones to spring forward, to keep them from tumbling over. The front is made circular, as No 1 , plate 10, drawn from a centre where the sides meet at the back, which are framed rather flatter than a square, that they may fit closer to the angle of a room. The common ones are from 15 to 18 inches over the ends, on which is fixed a piece of mahogany 12 inches broad, cut to a quarter round or ogee shape. The design ofthese pieces is to prevent the water from spray ing the wall where they stand. These have but one drawer, and two shams, one on each side of the centre, with a stretcher, the same as No. 1. Those like No. 1 , are made considerably larger. The general sizes of which are marked upon the plate, where observe a dotted circle, which shews that the top is hinged, and turns down to hide the bason, and enclose the whole. Observe a spring at the upper end of the dotted circle, BAS 37 t F which is made of thin iron or wood, so that the top being placed upright, it starts out to prevent it from coming down. The circular Tripod Bason-stand, No. 2, is entirely novel, and is designed for a young lady to wash at The back, to which the curtains are fixed, is made separate, and turned over in a scroll, where the lights are fixed. To this back must also be fixed a small shelf to hold a soap glass, and to which a face glass is hinged, and supported by a small brass wire foot behind, which falls into notches. The bason occupies the whole circumference, as is obvious by the design. The curtains are intended not merely for ornament, but to cover the bason, by being brought forward, which, having a small fringe at the bottom, will look handsome. The lower part contains a cupboard for the water jug, and in the lower frieze may be a small drawer, if thought necessary. No. 3 is enclosed at the top by tambour, and is the first ofthe kind I have seen. The workman will easily see how to manage the tambour, by making a partition to come before the back, to give room for its passage down a groove cut for that purpose. On this account the stand should be wider from back to front by an inch and a half. The scale for this and No. 2, is marked at the foot of it. But observe that No. 1 is drawn to a smaller scale ; but to prevent any mistake, the sizes are affixed to the design. In plate 12 , is another corner bason-stand, containing a night convenience. This will require to be made large to contain it. The stool part is made to fit exactly in, and on the right hand turns either on hinges or by iron centres, as the workman may judge most proper. To prevent its coming too far out, a groove must be 38 BAT cut at the bottom in a true arch, and an iron pin made so as to be screwed on the bottom of the stool to pass in the said groove. And observe, that when the stool is brought forward till it stops, there is a foot hinged to the underside, which lets down to support it. The height to the top ofthis stool need not be more than 16 inches from the ground. The top is hinged, and managed the same as No. 1 , plate 10. BASSO- RELIEVO, in sculpture and carving, implies a certain degree of projecture assigned to figures or ani mals, cut out in tablets, &c. Where there is a group of figures, the relief is to be managed with such art as to produce distance, as in perspective. For this purpose the basso-relievo assigns to the first or principal figure, a pro jection more than half out, to the second one half, to the third one quarter ; so that the back figures will seem to recede more than they strictly do . - See RELIEVO. BASTION, in fortification , is a large heap of earth, faced either with sods or bricks, and sometimes with stones, projecting from a rampart, anciently termed bulwark. BATH, in architecture, denotes a house or apartment for bathing in . These are sometimes fitted up with taste and elegance, even in modern times. But the Greek and Roman baths seem to have displayed as much of their opulence and taste in building as any other branch of their architecture. It seems that some parts of the baths of Titus and Dioclesian are still to be seen at Rome, though these Emperors lived, the former in the first, and the latter in the third century. Some of these baths were laid with the richest marble, and wrought by the rules of the most delicate archi tecture. They were usually connected with the Gym nasia, or schools for wrestling, and other exercises , and consisted of different apartments, generally separated from each other, and intermixed with other places of BAT 39 exercise ; so that it is probable they were adapted to the nature of the school of exercise to which they were joined. These were, 1st, the cold-bath ; 2d, the room where they anointed with oil ; 3d, the cooling room ; 4th , the stove apartment, from whence they had their hot baths ; 5th, the sweating room, with a vaulted ceiling, or vapour bath ; 6th, the dry stove-room; and 7th, the hot-bath. It is not, however, to be imagined, that such as bathed for pleasure only could want all this variety. These baths were of a politic nature, and of Imperial institution, for the training of young persons up in mili tary exercises. There were also schools for youth of both sexes connected with them, and under proper in structors. Ifthe body were too gross, they could reduce it by sweating and the hot-bath ; if they were too relaxed, they could brace by the cold-bath. The extent of these kinds of baths, as described by Palladio, was very great, including every office and place of recreation connected with them. For the whole they measured out 250 Roman paces. The Imperial baths were some of them adorned with 200 marble pillars, and were furnished with 1600 marble seats ; and in which 1800 persons might find accommo dations for bathing at one time. BATTEN, a scantling of wood from 2 to 4 inches broad, and 1 inch thick, or more. Yellow deal battens are used for flooring of a good kind, being, on account of their narrow width, least liable to shrink or twist. By means of battens, doors are sometimes made to ap pear as if framed with pannels. There are also battened doors, which are called double doors, for front or outer doors, which are usually made of whole deal, and afterwards battened on the outside, and pieces 4 or 5 inches broad mitred round the edges on the outside of the door ; and then it is lined across 40 BAY the door between these pieces with thin slit deal, which makes it level with the mitred pieces, and having a bead on the inner edge, it appears like what joiners term bead and flush. BATTER, a term used by bricklayers, to signify that a wall inclines from a perpendicular inwards or from them. BATTLEMENT, in architecture, is sometimes taken for a low wall on the top of buildings, for defence or safety, without regard to the notches or indentures that are sometimes in battlements. The battlements on the top of old built churches, cathedrals, and such like, with open spaces, and then piers alternately, seem to be what we in general mean by this term . BAYS, or BAIZE, a sort of open woollen stuff, having a long nap, sometimes frized, and sometimes not. This stuff is without wale, and is wrought in a loom with two treadles like flannel. It is chiefly manufactured at Colchester and Bocking, in Essex, where there is a hall called the Dutch-bay-hall, or Raw- hall. This manufacture was first introduced into England, with that of says , serges, &c . by the Flemings, who fled thither about the fifth of queen Elizabeth's reign, from the hand of persecution , for their religion . Brit. Encyclop. Bays is in breadth commonly 1 yard, 1 yard, or 2 yards, and their length from 42 to 48 yards. It is much in use by cabinet-makers and uphold sterers. By the latter, bays is used to cover over car pets, and made to fit round the room, to save them. Bays is used by cabinet- makers, to tack behind clothes press shelves, to throw over the clothes. BAYS DOORS are such as are used in winter to pre vent the cold from penetrating into the apartments of de delicate persons. For which purpose, a cylindrical spring, joined to an iron arm, is fixed to some part of the casing of the door. This arm has a roller fixed at BEA 41 + d d 3 1. or or at he ce, be a his th at all d, 10 1, d, 18 d• _I÷ 1. es e e al of at its end, and there being an iron or brass plate screwed to the bays door, every time the door is opened the spring presses the arm against this plate, and the roller lets it pass free, so that the door falls to of itself. The frames of these doors are made of 1 and 2 inch deal, according to their situation and size, and then they are fit into the place where they are to be hinged, and room enough must be left for the thickness of the bays. BAY TREE. It has spear-shaped leaves, veined, is an ever-green, and a native of Italy. Its chief use is for ornament, in gardens or plantations, and it thrives well underthe droppings of other trees, and forms an agree able shade. But as I do not find that this tree is in use amongst workmen, I therefore thus dismiss it. BAY WINDOW, or window that projects in a circle from the front, for the sake of prospect. BEAD, in architecture, is a semi- circular moulding joined to the edge of thin facias, or slips , and are worked by a plane named after the moulding that it works. BEADS are of three descriptions ; a quirk bead, amongst cabinet-makers, is frequently worked by a small iron tool, filed to the shape of a bead, which they work across the grain, and longwise for the sake of dispatch : 2d, a cock bead projects in a semi-circle above the surface of any thing. This bead is worked by a plane, so termed, and is that moulding which is put round maho gany drawers as an ornament : the 3d is a staff-bead, used byjoiners, which is their common bead plane men tioned above, which they work on both sides of any thing which forms a staff at the corner of posts, &c. How beads in architecture are ornamented be seen may in plate 9. BEAM, in carpentry, is applied to those massy pieces of timber, which either stretch the whole length or width of a building, and are sometimes supported with pillars. 42 BED In roofing the principal rafters are tenoned into beams, which bind the walls, and support the whole roof. According to act of parliament, a beam 15 feet long must not be less than 7 inches deep by 5 inches thick ; one at 16 feet long must be 8 inches by 6 ; and at 17 feet must be 10 inches by 6. BED, taken in a general sense, includes the bedstead and other necessary articles incident to this most useful of all pieces offurniture. By not reflecting upon the history of beds, we forget our present indulgence in their quality, when compared with those of our forefathers. Our ancestors before the Roman invasion, slept upon skins, that for this purpose were spread on the floor of their apartments. After wards they enjoyed rushes and heather. But when the Romans taught us agriculture, one of the benefits re sulting from it was a straw bed. Weare informed by a certain writer, that straw beds were in use in the royal chambers of England as late as the close of the thirteenth century. Since that time beds were no longer suffered to rest upon the ground, but, as had been practised long before in the east, were mounted on pedestals. This, how ever, was only amongst the gentry, and not the poorer sort till within four or five ages past. And even in ⚫ our own times straw beds are in use amongst some of the Highlanders, and in some parts of Ireland and Wales. But these particular cases are no rule by which to estimate the custom of a nation ; for now the great body of the people in the three kingdoms sleep either upon chaff or feather beds, laid at least upon some kind of frame ; and in most of the southern parts of Eng land, and many in the northern, the poorest people in villages enjoy a feather- bed. We have noticed, that long before the Roman conquest the eastern nations, BED 43 particularly Judea, had their beds laid on frames or pedestals . This appears from two or three passages of sacred writ, wherein is particularly mentioned the iron bedstead of a Gentile prince of a very extraordinary size, and in another place such as were made of ivory, whereon those that were in worldly ease stretched them selves . And in after-times, when the Jews had copied some of the fashions of the Greeks and Romans, we find they had not only couches to sleep upon, but such as they used at meals, on which they reclined at the time of eating. The first sort amongst the Romans were termed lecti tricliniorum, literally a three-couch bed, because there were generally three of these in one room. The latter lecti cubiculares, dining beds or couches, of which there were generally three at on table. On this account the masters of such feasts were termed, in our Saviour's time, agxigixλivos , architricklinos, compounded of archi, head, and tricklinos, three beds or couches, which is translated in our version, the governor or ruler of the feast. John ii . 9. . These dining beds were about 4 or 5 feet high, which inclines me to suppose they had a back something like our sofas. -See GRECIAN DINING TABLE. As we do, so it appears that the Greeks and Romans affected loftiness of style ; but in what way they fur nished the frame with bedding is not easily determined. It is certain that they had coverings of worked counter panes, and that the ladies exerted their genius in deco rating them by their own productions of various kinds. As our health in some measure depends on the manner of sleeping, it may be pertinent to observe the general principle on which bedding should be composed, but which should, in my opinion, be regulated by the nature of the constitution of those who are to sleep on them. Some may require a softer bed than others, but in 44 BEE general firm beds are the most healthy, especially for persons inclining to perspire, or those who are of a deli cate frame, to whom scarcely any thing can be more hurtful than to sink in soft down. These sort of beds are better adapted to the robust and healthy, who can with propriety sustain the indulgence, and who may require to be reduced by sweating. For delicate persons I offer my opinion how they should have their beds made : first to begin with a straw mattress, then a flock ditto , on which the feather bed is to be laid, and lastly, a hair mattress ; but if it should feel too firm , then a very thin flock mattress may be placed upon it. But in general the hair mattress will be best, being of an elastic nature, which prevents from sink ing so as to perspire. The same observations will, in ge neral, hold good in the pillows and bolsters. To render the constitution hardy, every effeminate person should by degrees bring himself to the habit of sleeping on hard beds, and not to sleep too long at one time. And all such persons, who by a relaxed habit have contracted weaknesses in the back, should be particular in avoid ing soft beds. From my own experience I have been induced to make such remarks ; for having been by sickness re duced to a very laxed habit of body, I found myself much relieved by attending to these things. As to the particular management of beds, and the articles required in mounting them, together with their various classes ; these, it is presumed, will most conve niently come under their respective names, as State, French, Alcove, Sofa, Half- tester, and Field Beds, &c.— For which look for these terms. BEECH, a species of the fagus, of which the chesnut tree. is reckoned one by some botanists, and the red and white beech two others. BEN 45 The beech tree is a native of Europe, and is often planted amongst other trees in forests. The red beech. grows in general almost to as large a size as the oak, but spreads where it has room rather wider with its branches. Its growth, when raised from the seed, is quicker than oak. Beech thrives well amongst other leafy woods, and requires the same sort of soil as the oak does. The wood of this species is not so hard as the white beech. They require at least about 15 or 16 years growth before any use can be made of them by cabinet-makers. At the end of so many years, when the beech may be cut, the stumps which are left will send out new branches. It is said that the white beech will thrive in a poorer soil than the red, but its growth is not so large ; its stem, which in height generally reaches from 20 to 30 feet, seldom attains to the thickness of a stout man. This beech being extremely hard, when of a good growth and quality, is much used in mill -work, amongst plane makers, and chair-makers. It requires to be kept dry, and will then prove lasting, but being exposed to wet and much dampness will rot very soon. It will imbibe into its pores a good quantity of linseed oil , which is a great preservative to it. Boiling it in red stain is hurtful to it, and before japan colour be laid on to it, it should have a thin coat of white lead and oil. It is propagated by sowing the seeds, which in form resemble a cherry-stone, from October to February. It requires to be kept clear from weeds when it rises. above ground. It is brought to London in great quan, tities from 1 inch boards to 5 inch planks, and is now the cheapest wood in use. BENCH, properly a seat, or seat of justice . Amongst cabinet-makers the term is used to denote a strong beech table on which they work. 46 BEN BEND. To incurvate any substance from a straight to a crooked form. Most substances may be thus effected by means of heat and water. The practice of ship -building proves, that plank wood of almost any thickness, by the united effects of these elements, may be brought to any curve. For, as the constituent parts of wood are of a fibry nature, or like so many threads joined together in one body, these, by means of infused heat, steam, and water, are relaxed to a degree which makes them give way to force, and so settle to any form . Oak plank is therefore boiled in long troughs for that purpose, or placed in a steam furnace. Amongst cabinet- makers, the difficulty of bending wood is owing to their not being able to apply a suffi cient quantity of the mollifying elements, without there by subjecting the wood to the hazard of shrinking, as generally such wood thus prepared is to be glued down immediately. To prevent this, bend as much as possible by fire heat only ; but after a certain degree of it, wood becomes more brittle, and liable to break. The medium between the two must be studied by the ingenious work man in bending wood. For this purpose, that tempera ture produced by sizing is recommended, together with gentle heating, otherwise the glue will harden and pre vent the wood from bending. Where linseed oil can be applied, it is well first to oil the wood to be bent, and then glue size it well, and proceed to heat the wood thus prepared, and with as much dispatch as possible lay it down. BENEFICENCE, in painting, is represented by a young woman with an agreeable aspect. Beautiful, because benevolence is approved by all. Young, to denote that BIC 47 the remembrance of past favours should never grow old. In one hand she holds a bag of gold and jewels ready to distribute them ; and in the other, a chain of gold, to signify that beneficence ties and obliges. BEVEL, amongst cabinet-makers and joiners, is an in strument used to take any angle with, or by which to mark a line which is not square. For this purpose the blade is made to move in a long groove, made in the stock or handle, and fixed to it by a nut and screw, so that it will alter to suit any degree of obliquity required; and thus it differs from a square, which is a fixed inftru ment at the angle of 90 degrees. A mitre bevel is an instrument fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, or which is the same thing, the diagonal line of any square. This instrument is sometimes termed a mitre templet, because of its use to cut mitres by. To findthe bevel of chair rails, let the learner plane a piece of thin deal, and if the front rail be 18 inches, and the back 15 , then 3 inches being the difference, let him take half of it, and lay on a square line drawn at one end of the lath ; then, if the length of the side rail be 16 inches, lay it on from the 1 inch, placed as above mentioned, and draw in the 16 inches to the edge of the lathe, and cut and plane it to this bevel line. Lastly, from this side thus prepared place the bevel, and move the blade till it coincide with the square line that was first drawn, which will give the correct line for the back and front joints of the proposed side rail. In this man ner, by a little practice, the young chair-maker may find out any bevel he wants. The bevel of hip rafters, and their backing, are taken notice of under the article RAFTER. BICE, a kind of colour. Blue bice is used in oil, but being of a sandy quality, it requires to be well ground, ` and upon a very hard stone. It is a lightish blue, and is 48 BID sometimes a substitute for ultramarine. It looks well near the eye, and may therefore be used on fore grounds. Green bice is of a pleasant tint, between sap green and verdigrease. It is used in water colours, and suits well for the bright leaves, and fore- ground of landscape. BIDET. A nag, or little horse, in use among soldiers formerly, but now laid aside. Amongst cabinet- makers it denotes a small stool with four legs, sometimes fixed, and at others to screw off, to render them more portable. -They contain a pan made of tin, and japanned, or are of earthen ware, made for the purpose. Ofthis species of furniture there are a variety. Some are framed in two inch beech, and cut afterwards to the particular shape of the pan, which is first provided as a guide to the whole. The outside of this frame is then veneered crosswise, and afterwards the upper side, with quarter inch mahogany, and rounded off in a smooth manner, till it meet with the side veneer. The loose top is fitted into a rabbet, which the pan hangs in. The top ought to be of hard, good wood, as it is very liable to warp from its situation. It is of three- quarter mahogany, and gently rounded off to a thin edge. The legs are thermed, to which are sometimes glued small ogee brackets to the underside of the frame. Their length is 18 inches or a little more, width 12 , and height 16 , out side measure. C Fortable bidets are made with their legs to screw off, and tops to lock up in some form or other. The simple box shaped ones are about 5 inches deep, with the top to slide in a groove, formed by a cross band round the top edge, which at one end is glued on the top, and mitered to the sides , so as to appear uniform all round. This cross banding is also rounded off as the other sort. A common till lock is sufficient to fasten 258 +43 BID 49 A the top with ; for as it is confined by a groove at the opposite end to that where the lock is fixed, it is evident, that the upright shut of the lock bolt is sufficient to secure it from being opened. And lastly, observe that the legs are turned, and of such a length as to pack in the inside of the pan. To the top is fixed a common drawer handle to lift it by. The tops of these are sometimes made to fix upon the box, and to come flush with the outside all round, on the corners of which a bead is stuck. -The manner of fixing the top is by letting in two plates, with holes in them, on the edge of that end of the box opposite the lock. Then to the underside of the top, which need not be more than half inch mahogany, two hook plates are let in to answer them. Lastly, when the top is to be locked, lift it partly upright, that the hook plates of the top may enter those with holes on the edge, then let it settle down to its place, and turn the lock, which, in this case, is of the box kind ; the link-plate being screwed to the under side of the top. Seat Bidets are those which have a frame to slip over that wherein the pan hangs ; they are stuffed with hair, and covered, by which the pan is hid, and are made. useful to sit on. Travelling bidets are made like a chest, with a top to take off, either by slip hinges, or in the manner described above, with hook plates. They have a drawer at the bottom , which slides in between the legs of the bidet frame, which rises out by the hand to a proper height for sitting on, and which is prevented from falling back by flaps hinged to the frame ofthe bidet, which are made to spring out these, when the seat is let down again, are easily pressed to by the hand. The drawer above mentioned is fitted up with various partitions and boxes for a lady's convenience, for whose use they are par E TY 50 BIL ticularly adapted. The size of these bidets run about 2 feet in length, 16 broad, and 18 or 20 inches high. BIER. A wooden machine for carrying the bodies of the dead ; from biere, French. Among the Romans the common bier was only a sort of wooden chest, which was burnt with the body. Those which were for the rich, were pompously adorned. In the churches of Rome there are monumental biers, on which they placed the bodies of some of their re nowned saints, to be venerated by their devout friends. BIFRONS. An appellation of Janus the son of Apollo, who was rewarded by Saturn with the knowledge of past and future events, and is therefore by painters de scribed with two faces looking backwards and forwards. Sometimes he was painted with four faces, having a reference to the seasons of the year. BILL, amongst workmen, a small hand axe, having its head of a crescent shape. BILL, in trade and amongst workmen, signifies an account delivered, either of goods sent in, or of work done for one. BILLIARD-TABLE. Thesetables are made very large, when they are ordered as full sized ones. Their shape is an oblong, about 12 feet in length, and 6 feet in width, and the height feet. They are covered with fine green cloth, and have stuffed cushions all round the inside of the top, which are to cause the balls to rebound. At each corner, and in the centre of the sides, are fixed nets or pockets, to receive the balls. To these tables belong maces and cues, by which the balls are driven into the above pockets. The former of these have a broad end or head, shaped out of inch thick hard wood, and about 1 inch broad, scooped out, and tapered to the part where the hole is bored for the stick, which in length is about 4 feet or BIR 51 more, and at the top end barely half inch in diameter, tapering to a full quarter of an inch. The cues are thick sticks, diminishing gradually to a point of about halfan inch in diameter, Billiard-table making is generally a branch by itself; though sometimes they are made in regular cabinet shops. When they are, they require the best of work men to execute them. And particularly the tops require to be framed in such a manner, as to prevent them from either warping or giving way. And if the surface be not perfectly even, they are of no use. BINDING. Amongst upholsterers is applied to the various kinds of narrow laces used to strengthen and ornament the edges of any sort of curtains, drapery, or bed furniture. Binding for tickings are about three-fourths of an inch broad, of white and blue stripe of cotton and linen, others a little broader, of a diamond pattern, of worsted and linen. The principal bindings are as follows : Bindings of silk ribbonds, various. Silk and worsted ditto. Silk covered laces, of various colours, 1 inch and up wards broad. Silk guard lace, and silk quality. And at present there is introduced from France, very recently, a sort of black velvet binding, which having not yet seen, I can give no account of it; but may on some future occasion. BIRCH TREE, the betula tree, of which there are four species according to the Linnæan system, and the com mon alder is the fifth. See the article ALDER. This wood is very useful, being both light and tough, and of a sort of cream colour. Mr. Emmenich says it will grow in any soil, if ever so poor, provided it be dry 52 BIS Its growth is quick and straight, and is therefore used . for hoops. This tree is remarkable for its vast quantity of sap in the spring season, at which time it is easily drawn offby making a proper orifice in the trunk. The best place for bleeding this tree, as it is termed by bo tanists , is under some large spreading branch from the trunk, which is to be performed by driving in a chissel in an oblique direction very deep, to which a convenient vessel is to be placed so as to receive the stream of sap which issues from it, whichin 14 days will amount to the weight of the whole tree, together with its roots. Of this sap is produced birch wine, recommended for the stone and gravel. It appears, however, that such a bleeding is unto death, as the tree never recovers. The birch seed is ripe in September and October, unless it has been a cool and wet summer, when it does not ripen till November, at which season, and also during the winter months, it may be sown, even upon snow. In June and July there is an appearance of seed, but it is not real. The real seed comes in clusters in the above months, and when rubbed clear of its capsule, is of a british yellow colour, smaller than mustard seed. Birch bark, being of a bituminous substance, is warm and emolient, and is therefore used in fumigations to correct a distempered air. The inner silken bark was anciently used for writing tables before the invention of paper. With the outward, thicker, and coarser part of this baik, are houses in Russia, Poland, and other northern tracts, covered instead of slates and tile. Birch leaves are of use in the dropsy, either internally or externally applied. Encyclop. Britannica. BISTRE, a transparent colour of a brownish, tint , and is extracted from the sort of wood. The French bistre is esteemed the best, on account of the very dry beech BLA 53 2 which they are careful to extract it from. When it is of a warm deep brown it is reckoned good. This colour works only in water, and is often used by artists in making out Indian ink drawings. It mixes well with Indian ink, and gives a warmth and mellowness to many parts, which may receive a considerable advantage by being touched with it. In landscapes it gives a proper hue to leaves inclining to wither. It also produces a good shade on fore-grounds, when joined with lake and Indian ink. BIT, amongst cabinet-makers, denotes a small boring tool, which is fixed by a spring into a wooden stock. Of bits there are a great variety, in a complete set, amounting to near four dozen in the whole. BLACK, a well known colour, though strictly speaking it is rather the absence or privation of light. Whether colours of any kind be a real property in matter, or only a sensible quality, I shall endeavour to illustrate under the article COLOUR, which see.

Lamp black is the most generally in use, and is of the soot kind, prepared from the resinous juice collected from incisions made in pine and fir trees, which, after being incrusted, is burnt, and the soot is collected from the smoke. The best lamp black comes from the smoke of linseed oil, but is not so easily procured as those blacks pro duced from the smoke of woods and resinous substances. As lamp black is of an oily extraction , it does not dry well, but if it be burnt in any iron vessel over a clear fire till it become red, the oily quality will evaporate, and it will dry much sooner. But by this operation it rather wastes in substance, and also requires more par ticular grinding before it can be used. If, however, it be required to use it in large quantities on common work, a portion of Paris white, or common whiting, 54 BLA may be ground up with it, which will not materially injure the black, but make it dry much quicker, though the lamp black should not be burnt. But should the colour be rendered less black by this admixture, a thin coat of entire lamp black, mixed and ground up with turpentine and drying oil, may be laid over it, as the above is only intended for a priming. Though lamp black be not the brightest black, yet it is the most opaque, and consequently bears the best body; on which account, in japanning it is preferred to ivory black, which is of a more transparent nature, and is more adapted for water colour. Ivory black is prepared from ivory or burnt bones. This, when, finely ground, forms a more beautiful black than the other, but does not cover so well. For certain purposes a mixture of both answers very well, as the lamp black assists the ivory in opacity, and the ivory the lamp in point of blackness. The best kind of ivory black is prepared from the raspings of ivory ; for that which is from bone is inferior, and is used to adulterate the other with. Ivory black is a bad drier, and therefore requires to be worked in some medium to make it harden, as sugar of lead and drying oil ; sometimes a little verdigrease may be used for this pur pose, without in the least impairing the black. To make a black for japanning chairs. Grind up lamp black in turpentine as stiff as it can be worked, then, having prepared the ground by size and whiting, and made it smooth, take as much turpentine varnish as will dilute the black ground as above. Lastly, take a hogs' hair brush, and lay it smooth on the ground of whiting. Whenthis is dry, take some ofthe lamp black groundas be fore, and addto it some white spirit varnish, which will in cline it to stiffen the turpentine colour ; to prevent which, take a small quantity of turpentine varnish, and pour 1 F BLA 55 into it, which being stirred about will keep it in a flow ing state, but it will presently coagulate again, if it be not laid on immediately, and with all expedition. If the work is to be made fine, it will require another such coat, previous to which the ground should be rushed, or made smooth by some means. The reason of using spirit varnish is, that the ground may bear a good body, and dry instantaneously, and especially where there are any lines or ornaments to be laid on the ground ; for in the ordinary way of painting black, it would be so long in drying, that it would thereby be exposed to dirt, nor would the ornaments appear so bright as on a proper japanned ground. In oil painting black is best relieved by a ground of light red, which will harmonize with the lights of the black object, which is also a light red ; and Indian red and a little ivory black for the shadows. The finishing colours for the lights, are black, white, and a little lake. The middle tint has less white, and more lake and black. The shade tint is composed ofan equal quantity of lake and brown pink, with a very little black. The shade of black ought to be kept clear and transparent, otherwise the shadow will too much resemble the object, and consequently will produce not only a heavy but a confused appearance. Black is of a cold heavy hue, and requires the lake in due proportion with the lights, and particularly if there are red reflect ing objects contiguous to the black. BLANKET, a warm, woolly sort of stuff, light and loose woven, chiefly used in bedding. The most fainous place for their manufacture is Witney, in Oxfordshire. The wool of which blankets are made is called felt wool, or that which comes off sheep skins. Ofthe head wool and bay wool, they make blankets of 12, 11 , and 10 quarters broad; ofthe ordinary and middle sort, blankets 56 BLI BLIND, amongst cabinet-makers, denotes some kind of opaque medium, placed or fit into a window as a check, either to the sun's rays, or the intruding eye of an over

looker.

"J of 8 and 7 quarters broad ; of the best tail wool, blankets of 6 quarters wide. 1 Those sort most commonly used are of mahogany, either to fold in two or in one leaf, with green stuff of some kind strained into a rabbet in the frame. These blinds are sometimes fixed with slip hinges, so that the frames may occasionally be taken off. When they are made to fold, they have a bolt on the left side, and a i . turn buckle in the centre of the right to keep them to their place. 1. The more fashionable blinds are all of wood, painted green, except the frame, which is of mahogany. The î blind part is either composed of upright or horizontal narrow laths, an eighth part of an inch thick, painted a bright green, and which move, by means of a lever, to any position, for admitting more or less light. Those most approved of at present are with upright 粤 laths, and move by turning a brass knob at the upper side of the frame. 1 Of such mediums there are a great variety, either placed internally or externally. The cheapest kind of blind is that of green canvas fixed to two sticks, either of mahogany or wainscot, hung by a couple of rings, and hooks screwed to the lowermost sash frames. The latest improvement of these is by Mr. Stubbs, of Oxford Street, who caps the ends of the laths with brass, so that the ends are secure from splitting by the wire put in to move them by. At each end of the laths are two of these wires, which by holes communi cate with two brass slips let into the top and bottom of BLI 57 the mahogany frame. These brass slips slide past each other in the manner of a parallel ruler, for the laths fixed to the brass , act with them in the same manner as the brass joints to the sides of these sort of rulers. Rolling blinds for internal use are either with spring barrels made of tin, or turn on a plain oak stick of 11 inch diameter. Spring rolling blinds are charged by a worm spring made of wire, extending the whole length of the tin barrel or cylinder ; but when the blind is drawn up to the top close to the cylinder, the spring is relieved, and the above-mentioned worm spring contracts in, but in creases in diameter. Hence, if the power ofthis spring be not properly adjusted to the length of the canvas, or in other words, to the height of the window, they are very liable to go wrong, and be spoiled.. If a spring be over charged, then it has not sufficient room in the barrel, consequently the wire will twist out ofform, and the spring is obstructed ; but if it be not enough charged, then it is incapable of drawing up the canvas to the top. To remedy which, it must be taken out of the case by which it is screwed up to the window, and the charge must be increased by a few more turns round the roller, or barrel, before it is put up again. To remedy the de fects of these spring blinds, Mr. Stubbs has invented a newly constructed spring, which, though confined to a small barrel, will draw up with ease any length of can vas, to 100 feet if required. And should a window be uncommonly narrow and high, his new spring is effectual in such a case, which upon the old plan always proved a matter of embarrasment One peculiar advantage accompanying this new-in vented spring blind, is its not being subject to the dis orders of the other kind. These blinds are intended to keep the sun from the room, not merely on account of heat, but to prevent the discharge of colours, and the 58 BLI injury which is done to furniture, where the heat of the sun is suffered to have uninterrupted access to anyapart ment which has elegant furniture. The plain rolling blinds, without springs, are most in use, being both cheaper and answering the same end. These have either a wood or brass pulley at each end, one with a channel to receive a line, and the other with out any, to guard the canvas as it rolls up, which is effected by a line passing round in the above channel, fixed to a brass rack which contains a small pulley that receives the line, which, by being tight drawn down, the line draws up the blind to any height. Venetian blinds are for the same purpose, but draw up by pullies fixed in a lath 1 inch thick, the same as a festoon window curtain. External sun blinds are also various. Those for shop windows come down over a roller, fixed within a box or case of wood, which receives the canvas, and when let fall from the inside, is stayed by iron rods. There are other blinds now in use for shop windows, made in light frames strained with canvas, which being hinged to an outer frame made to receive these, some times three, or more in number, move all at one time to any convenient angle, so as to keep out the sun. The means by which they move all at one time, is by a small lath screwed to each frame, so that when one is moved, the other necessarily follows in a parallel direc tion, on the same principle that the parlour blinds, with upright laths, move ; for the screw having play at the head, the frames will fall down of themselves, so that they must be kept to their appointed position by a line fixed to the upper frame, and passing through a pulley at the upper end of the outer frame, which is tied to a hook. These sort of blinds are made to take off when they are not wanted. BLU 59 There are other external blinds for first floor windows, which draw up under a cornice fixed to the outside of the head frame ofthe window. But these being of can vas are not so proper for outside blinds as those of the Venetian kind, with brass chains, instead of the usual way of hanging the laths in green tape. These last mentioned have been introduced by Mr. Stubbs, as above, and bid fair for answering the intended purpose as ex ternal window blinds. The Venetian part is enclosed under a cornice; when drawn up, and in letting down, is guarded by a frame, so that the wind cannot blow them aside. BLOCK. Applied sometimes to wood, and also to marble. A marble block, denotes marble in its rough state, as it comes from the quarry, before it has either assumed shape or polish from the hand of the workman. On the contrary, a block of wood implies, that a piece of timber is cut to some shape, and appropriated to a certain purpose in the mechanic arts. BLUE. One of the seven colours into which the rays of light divide themselves, when refracted through a glass prism. The order of the seven primary colours is as follows, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. These are considered as primary, because the rays of light are capable of various degrees of refrangibility, which, when effected by a prism, the above colours are discovered on the glass. Hence it was demonstrated by Sir Isaac Newton, that what we call pure light, is a compound of these primary colours ; therefore, in a philosophical sense, white is not a separate colour, but a compound; and black the privation of all these, or the absence oflight, which is the compound of the seven primary colours. -K, W "UP, will · 60 BLU Those rays which are least refrangible, produce red ; and those which are the most, violet. By refrangible rays, is to be understood those which are turned aside from their direct course by some medium, as air, glass , polished metals, and water, into which they enter, and are broken from a right line, by which are produced that variety of colours now specified. —See COLOUR. [6] The blues used by painters are ultramarine, Prussian, bice, smalt, verditer, and Saunder's blue. Ultramarine is the finest and dearst blue, and is used in high finished skies in landscape, and those reflections on water produced by it. Prussian blue is next to it, but will not prove so firm and durable. It works best in oil ; and by a proper mixture of white, will make a pleasing light blue, of any degree of shade. To this light mixture of blue, add a little lake and orange, with the least touch of yellow, for a sky blue . - See SKY. As Prussian blue is the principal in use, it may be proper to observe, that it is much adulterated to reduce the price, and impose on the unwary. In purchasing this article, if it be broken, and appears inclining to a blackish hue, it is good ; but if filled with white speckles , it is impregnated with white of some kind. If indigo be good, it breaks into a copperish colour. Blue bice is also a pleasant colour in oil . -See BICE. Saunder's blue is of much the same nature. Indigo blue is most in use for dying, but is sometimes worked in oil , and used for a shade on lighter kinds of blue. 3 -k A Blue verditer is most used in water. It is of a pleasant tint, but does not lay in solidly. In order to make it cover on paper, it should be ground with a little white flake, sore h tends to unite its volatile par nted. I W BLU 61 ticles. But this blue is apt to change, and fade into a dirty green. Smalt is a very fine bright blue, inclining to purple, but excessively hard, and gives a vast trouble in grind ing. Painters use blue to make objects turn off, and to give to others their due distance, by a judicious mixture with their natural colours. Hence it may be observed, that as blue is a receding or retiring colour, it can have no proper place in high lights, or front objects, except it be a natural colour, in which case its lightest parts will be nearly white, and the shades a bluish black : but an object thus painted, will look cold and frigid, without some touches of a warm tint, especially if the contiguous objects be of a red hue. Sir Isaac Newton observes, that the blue appearance of the sky originates by the condensing of vapoury matter into natural particles, which become of such a bigness as to reflect the azure rays before they constitute clouds, or any other colour. This, therefore, being the first colour which condensed vapour begins to reflect , it must be that of the most transparent kind of sky, in which the vapours are not arrived to a grossness suf ficient to reflect other colours. Other philosophers, con sidering the immensity of space of the skies as naturally producing blackness , suppose that blackness appears to us the blue that we see, because we behold this im mensity of space through white rays of light, which, by natural experiments, produces a blue tint : as, if any black body be viewed through a transparent white one, the sensation of blue is thereby produced. Hence they have observed, that soot or lamp black, mixed with white, is a blue. The lamp black, white lead, and a small quantity of queen's blue, will make a passable colour for common work. 62 BOA The blueness of some of our veins is accountable from this observation : for the blood, in such a confined medium, must be next to a black, and being near the extremities of the body, are viewed through the white membrane of the skin, by means of rays of light, the blood appears blue : to represent which, in painting the human body, artists use a delicate tint of Prussian blue. Blue kills some colours ; and on which account, before any be used to join with another colour, they should be compared together, and if the more brilliant colour to which it is joined, becomes thereby less vivid, some other colour should be chosen. Blue and white, blue and black, very light blues and yellow, will harmonize. BOARD. A term used to denote any kind of wood cut into quarter, half, three quarters, and inch thicknesses. Wood cut into inch and quarter, and all above, is called plank wood. In measuring mahogany logs , the superficial content is taken in square feet, and the thick ness of the log or plank is divided into inch boards, and the superficial content of the log, &c. is multiplied by the number of inch boards, which is the produce of the whole. Deal boards are generally sawn abroad, and so im ported into England. Cap boards are imported from Sweden and Dantzic. Oak boards chiefly from Holland and Sweden, and some from Dantzic. BOASTING, amongst carvers and statuaries, is the massy and rude formation of any general outline. Boast ing, in this sense, is the great ground work of the finer parts of relief, and requires the skill of a master in carv ing. It is to this art what the composition of a good bass is in music, it lays a foundation for a fine air. Those carvers which are the ablest in drawing, are BOD 63 for the most part employed in boasting, as they are best acquainted with the necessary projecture to be given to the respective parts. Hence it becomes the province of the boaster, after making out the sketch, to shape the outline by gouges or saws, and then make out the pro minences of each part, by glueing on pieces of wood for that purpose. These rude pieces are glued to a board, and paper inserted between to make the carving come easier off when it is finished. When the work is suffi ciently dry, the boaster proceeds to place his gouges by a judicious choice of such kind only as will suit the turn of the parts in boasting ; for to have more would only hinder him. Lastly, he proceeds to give the principal strokes of the whole piece, bylaying on the first layer of muscles, if we may here use that anatomical expres sion. This being a sufficient guide, the work is put into the hands of the carver, who is in the habit of giving the finishing strokes. In small factories it is common for one carver to begin and finish the whole of the carving. But where there are a number of hands employed, and in pieces that require much skill, the other is the most preferable way. Boasting, in painting, is represented by a woman making a great shew, covered with the feathers of a peacock, with a trumpet in her left hand, and her right in the air. The feathers denote pride, the matter of boasting ; the trumpet intimates self boasting, or a sound ing ones own fame ; for vain boasters take delight in publishing their own actions. This may serve as a moral lesson to youth, who are often caught in the folly of self adulation, which to the modest sensible mind is highly offensive. BODY, amongst painters, applies to the distinction be tween transparent and opaque substances used in colour ing. Body colours are of an earthy or opaque quality, 64 BOL. worked with oil, or size and water. The colours best adapted to oil painting is the most proper for body water colours ; a list of which is given under the term PAINTING. This term is used to denote the tendency of particular colours to unite with oil in grinding, so that they be come in a manner one body. When paint of this qua lity is finely ground, it will flow pleasantly from the pencil, and will not separate from the oil, but will cover well and easy. In japanning, particular regard should be paid to such colours as, in this sense, bears the best body, especially in stroke work, as the lines cannot be run so thick, and effectually by that kind of colour which does not bear a good body. Those colours which bear a poor body separate from the oil in laying on, and therefore will appear in an un even hue, and will not cover well nor easy. BOLE, amongst gilders, is a kind of viscid earth, less co herent and more friable than clay. It more readily unites with water than clay, and subsides more freely from it. There are a great variety of these earths, but that kind used in burnished gilding on wood is bole ar moniac, groundthick with very thin size, and then diluted with a stronger sort.-See GILDING . BOLSTER, amongst upholsterers, is that part of bedding used to rest the head upon, and serves as a foundation for the pillows. Bolsters stuffed with hair is, in my opinion, the best, for the reasons assigned under the article BED, which see. The bolster of sofas and couches are generally covered with the kind of stuff with which the seats are covered. BOLT, amongst cabinet-makers, is various. Those in most common use, are termed flush brass bolts , used . for bookcases, from 2 to 30 inches in length. There are also bolts of iron with necks, used to BOO 65 dining tables. Some use broad flush brass bolts, instead of these. They are set on the inside of the linings of square frames, and shut up into the iron strap hinges by which the loose flaps of such tables are fixed to the bed. To receive the bolt the edge of the strap hinge is filed into a notch, so that when the bolt is shut into it, the strap hinge cannot draw off. Bolts, amongst joiners, are of five or six different sorts-first, plate bolts and also spring bolts are for fasteningdoors and windows. There are also round bolts ofvarious sizes for large doors and gates, some with necks and others straight. Also some curious brass bolts for double doors, of a late invention ; these have plates set on the edge of the door, extending the whole length, so that by a turn of the knob handle in the centre of the door, the bolts shut up and down at the same time. By turning the contrary way, the bolts are relieved, and both the doors open at once without further trouble. These are very expensive and only used in grand apart ments, most commonly in doors which divide or lay open two spacious rooms. To avoid the great expence of those, there are others that act on nearly the same principle, named spring latch bolts, about 13 inches long, with a stout plate. Two of these are required to a pair of doors ; one at the top, the other at the bottom : the bolts are shut by a spring in each, which the right hand door presses against, and being locked, both are thereby secured. It is needless to give a more particular description, as they may be had at Mr. Lane's, at the Seven Dials, by enquiring for spring latch bolts. BOOK-CASE. As a bookcase or library is doubtless a leading article in the cabinet branch, it is presumed that a short narrative of the origin of books, and of the F 66 BOO materials which the most ancient literatii employed to transmit their learning to posterity by, will not be incon sistent with the professed design of this dictionary. To have a tolerable acquaintance with books in gene ral, as to matter, use, substance, and dimension, will unquestionably tend to furnish the ideas of a cabinet maker, better both for designing and executing a library case in any stile, than he would be without such help. Amongst the truly learned, there is no question as to the superior antiquity of the holy scriptures of the old testament : yet amongst the Egyptians, there must have been some kind of writing prior to that on tables of stone, mentioned by Moses. But whatever was written in Egypt more anciently than this period, never was handed down to posterity in any form of a book. The books of Homer and Hesiod cannot vie with those of Moses in point of antiquity, and in point of importance is infinitely short of them. And I cannot but embrace this opportunity of cautioning the young cabinet-maker, to beware ofslighting these books, that he may more freely receive the scoffing infidelity of the age ; and particularly of a late writer, who has endeavoured to degrade these vencrable books to a degree beneath pro fane history. If any such books have fallen into your hands, I take the liberty of recommending a suitable antidote against such deadly poison. This you may find in Bishop Newton on the Prophecies, in 3 vol. octavo, in which you will see the books of Moses and the other prophets, placed upon a rock, against which the gates of hell shall not prevail. And he who is now endeavouring to serve you in your secular profession, would kindly offer it as his opinion, that you never will be able to make a good use of books, until you be properly acquainted with those written on tables of stone by the finger of God. Exod. xxxi. 18. -xxxii. 15. 16 . BOO 61 Several sorts of materials were used by the ancients to write on besides stone, though this seems to have been the first ; for Josephus mentions, that the children of Seth, before the flood, used brick and stone pillars, on which they wrote their astronomical discoveries and memoriable events. In after times, box and ivory were used. When they used wood, they sometimes covered it with wax, that they might easily erase what was thought improper ; afterwards they made use of the inner and finer part of the bark of lime, ash, elm, and maple trees ; whence the word liber, which signifies the inner bark of trees ; and our word library, from the latin liber, a book. These barks were rolled up to make them more portable, or easily laid aside, and hence they were termed vollumen, a volume ; a name afterwards given to the like rolls of parchment and paper. It is not easy to determine whether the leaves of trees were in use before the bark, but it appears that the palm tree leaf was sometimes written upon. It seems that the sybilline oracles of the Roman pro phetic virgins , were written on leaves, probably of the palm, as that tree was much in use amongst their em blematical exhibitions. Their prophecies being written on such leaves, were arranged in some order by these daughters of superstition , but were sometimes scattered with the wind, and were not easily collected again. Hence they had a proverb, laboriocius est quam sibyllæ folia colligere, as difficult to collect as the books of the sybils. Lead was then used ; afterwards leather, especi ally the skins of goats and sheep, which terminated in the use of parchment, which is made of such skins. Linen, silk, and horn ; and lastly, paper, as at present in use amongst us. The first kind of volumes were composed of a number of sheets fastened to each other, and rolled upon a stick, 68 BOO the whole making a kind of column or cylinder, which was handled by a part of the stick projecting out at the end of the roll ; it being reputed a crime to take hold of the roll itself. The outside of the volume was called frons, and the ends of the stick or umbilicus, cornua, which were usually carved, and adorned with gold, The silver, or ivory, and sometimes precious stones. title subs, or syllables, or letters composed into sylla bles and words, denoting that it was to be respected as a book, and not considered as a mere blank. These volumes were about four feet wide, and the length of the sheets supposed to be put to the end of each other, amounted sometimes to about fifty yards or more. Thus much may suffice on the origin and substance ofbooks. Next to a right use of books, and a proper choice of them; the cabinet-maker is most concerned with their various sizes ; but as I wish to direct the young men of this profession into that path of instruc tion which will be most conducive to their lasting im provement, the more advanced in knowledge will can didly excuse a few hints on this subject . The increase of useful knowledge is by a perusal of well- selected books, on subjects whose result will unite in forming the minds and manners of youth into such a mould, as will render them useful and honourable members of society . The notion of attaining the knowledge of dead languages, in youth intended for commercial pro fessions, is fanciful and chimerical, and by no means. adequate, as is supposed by mistaken parents, to insure a perfection in spelling and writing the English tongue. That most accute philosopher, Mr. Locke, has exploded and even ridiculed the idea ; and Dr. Lowth, the best grammarian of his age, was of the same opinion. The reason why Latin scholars generally write and spell better than others who are quite ignorant of that tongue, is BOO 69 that they learn Latin by consulting a dictionary, in which the Latin is explained by English words ; so that bythe habit of translating into English, they acquire a know ledge of both languages together. But if half the time necessary for attaining Latin were spent in English alone, by the use of good dictionaries and grammars, it would insure a greater perfection of both spelling and writing the English than learning by Latin. The English tongue being a branch of education of the utmost con sequence, youth ought particularly to apply themselves to its cultivation. A moderate share of arithmetic and geometry, but as much of architecture, perspective, and painting in general, as can possibly come within the reach of the young cabinet-maker or upholsterer, ought to be regarded as unitedly contributing to his per fection in those arts. Tosome knowledge of these, he ought to add an acquaintance with history, particularly of past and ancient ages, which will tend to suppress the unwarrantable prejudices he has in favour of the productions, taste, and manners of his native country, which generate self-confidence, and prevents him from sharing those benefits, derivable from a due respect paid to the shining talents of foreigners, and those who have gone before us in our own country. By a judicious choice of books of history, he will see the great outlines of providence towards other nations, both in civil and religious affairs, which will expand and enlarge his ideas, both of the goodness of God, in his gifts to others, and of the honourable way in which they were improved, by the persevering vigilance of men both in a civil and religious sense. Such a view of past events and transactions, will bring home humbling lessons of instruction in both ways, that will greatly contribute to form the minds of youth into a mode of 70 BOO thinking and reflection, that may probably issue in last ing improvement. The youth who has but little opportunity to read, should be careful to have none but such as will improve him in useful knowledge ; which he may be assured he never can obtain from whimsical novels and farces : these only vitiate the mind, and turn it off the more serious pursuits of real science. Under a certain view, too many books are a real evil, when thereby not one of them is fundamentally studied. I would advise youth. to read an author of his own choice, closely through first; and those parts he wishes most to retain in his memory, ought to be copied in writing ; for it has been observed, by competent judges, that once copying is equal to twenty readings. The second time of reading a book may be most advantageously done, by only dipping into it in certain emphatical parts, by which, the sentiment of the author will often convey itself more clearly to the understanding, than on reading regularly through, and at half the expence of time. And if the reader be tolerably acquainted with a subject, before he takes up an author, he may collect advantage by only a cursory reading at first. By such a use of books, a multiplicity may be no real evil, but advantageous. If a multiplicity of books be a sure indication of an increase of useful knowledge, we have the pleasure of seeing that in our times : at any rate there is an increase of trade arising from it ; and in some past ages it has been the 匪 means of preventing a total extinction of science, by the injuries of time, the rage of tyrants, the zeal of prosecutors, and the ravages of barbarians. Cabinet-makers have doubtless felt an interest in the increase of books, detached from their wish of the spread of real knowledge, in the multiplied demands. that have been for bookcases of late years, which in BOO 71 · some manufactories have been the leading articles of employ. To assist in the proper management of which, I shall subjoin the names and dimensions of the various papers of which books are formed, which it is presumed will prove a useful guide to the plan of particular book cases, sometimes ordered by gentlemen . NAMES OF PAPER AND SIZE IN INCHES. Inches. Inches. 26 by 40 26/1 34 23 34 22 30 23 28 191 27 191 24 18 23 9 Demy (of which is this dictionary) 17 22 10 Crown 15 20 13 16 1 Grand eagle or double elephant 2 Atlas - 3 Colombier 4 Imperial - 5 Elephant 6 Super-royal 7 Royal 8 Medium · - · 11 Foolscap - According to these dimensions the following sized volumes are formed. A double elephant folio will be 26 by 20, conse quently the lower part of a bookcase for such books , must be 27 or 28 inches between base or surbase, in the clear. This paper is mostly used for the largest prints without folding, in which case the portfolio for such, will be 30 by 44 ; which, in planning the book case, must be attended to. The same must be observed of the atlas, colombier, and imperial, which are mostly used for prints ; but if for letter-press, they fold into quartos of the following sizes. Quarto double elephant Ditto atlas - - Ditto colombier Ditto imperial - - - Inches. Inches. ... 20 long by 134 wide 17 134 17 112 15 11 12 BOO These, by mistake, are generally termed folios, in comparison with the following, which are the usually printed quartos. Quarto super-royal Ditto royal Ditto medium - 111 These, folded into octavo or eight leaves. Inches. Octavo demy Ditto crown Ditto foolscap Octavo super-royal Ditto royal Ditto medium - · · Inches. 9 long by 6 wide 9/1/2 6 9 5/1 The following are however more commonly employed for octavo books. · · · · · Inches. Inches. 13 long by 9 wide 12 941 · 9 Inches. Inches. 8 long by 5 7/1 5 61 4층 The design for a bookcase, plate 19, is in general so easy to understand by a workman, that little needs be said to explain it. It may, however, be necessary to observe, that round the lower and upper doors, it is intended to have a double bead all round, to which the doors are to be hinged, and which will give them room to turn clear of the columns; and also add to the appear ance of the whole. The workman must likewise ob serve, that the diamond work on the upper end of the lower doors, is in the framing, and is meant to be cross banded. The pannel stands a quarter of an inch within the framing, and the diagonal strokes in the centre are flutes, to be worked in quarter mahogany, in that direction, and let into the pannel to come even with its surface. The pannel in the centre of these flutes , which are of the Doric kind- see Fluting-may be of any handsome veneer, cross-banded either of mahogany or 7 BOR 73 some other kind. This pannel is to serve as a stop to the flutes, which thus executed, will have a pleasing effect. The scale of feet will shew the dimensions, by a very little allowance for its position. Under the term Library, is given another design, more laboured and extensive, suited to a library room, which see. BOOK-SHELF. Small open shelves for books under present reading, and which a lady can move to any sitting room. For this purpose they are made small, about 2 feet to 27 inches in length, of thin mahogany or satin wood, banded on the edges of the shelves, which are seldom more than two in number, exclusive of the top and bottom. To keep them light, the shelves are often connected together by means of strong brass wire at each corner, and in the centre of the shelves ; so that they have no need of close ends of wood. Bythe same wires which support and connect the shelves to gether, uniting in a point at the top, about 15 inches above it, the book-shelf is hung, so as it may be taken off at pleasure. The books placed on such shelves, are duodecimo, as they are not strong enough for those of a larger kind. There are, however, book shelves of a stronger construction, and to the length of 3 feet or more, of mahogany, which have close ends, and are fixed fast to the wall ; and serve for gentlemen's volumes of a larger size. BORDER, Is a general term, both amongst cabinet makers and upholsterers, but chiefly the latter, who are concerned with a boundless variety, both of carpet bordering and paper hangings. Amongst cabinet-makers the term is very contracted, and is only used to denote a broad band or margin, about an inch and halfto two in breadth; which have been sometimes japanned in cabinet work, but is now wisely laid aside for the more 74 BOR . durable work in solid brass, let into dark wood, such as black rose-wood, or coromandel, &c. Of carpet borders and those in paper hangings, see the articles CARPET-PAPER-HANGING. BOREAS, poetically, is used to denote the north wind. The Greeks erected an altar to Boreas, because he was thought to preside over the cold climates and seasons. Hence, the Athenians represented him with his robe before his mouth, as if he felt the pinching winds. In painting he is generally represented as an old man, with an horrible look, his hair and beard covered with snow, or hoar-frost, with the feet and tail of a dragon. BORING. The art of perforating, or making a hole through any solid body. For this purpose, cabinet-makers use a stock and bits of various constructions, as centre-bit, nose-bit, shell bit, and auger-bit. Boring common ship pumps, is first by an auger made strong and large for that purpose : and to bring the bore of the pump to a sufficiently large diameter, they then apply a sort of rincing scoop-bit. Water-pipes, made generally of alder, are bored by the same kind of tool. They lay the poles of alder on tressels of a proper height to rest the auger upon, whilst they are boring ; and if the stick of alder be not straight, it is bored from each end till the holes meet in the middle of the stick. In joining two of these water-pipes together, they make the small end of one the male part, and the largest end of the other the female. In turning the male part round, and of a diameter to fit the female end, from about 6 inches off the end, they turn a small groove. In the female part a small hole is bored, so as to be perpendicular to the groove of the male part, that when the two parts are joined together, and forced to their place, they may pour • BOS 75 a composition of pitch, tar, and rosin, into the groove, which will run round the whole, and fill the male groove, so as to keep the joint, thus formed, water tight. In this manner they proceed to any length, in conveying water from place to place. It is presumed, however, that a machine might be constructed to bore by a wheel, in the manner that the cartridge boxes are bored. This they perform by a centre-bit fixed into a lathe, and having a rest of wood, on which they place the cartridge wood, cut and planed to its proper size , they press it to the centre-bit, and, by a foot treadal wheel, are able to keep it still pressing forwards, till one hole is completed ; after which they move it to the next centre, and so repeatedly, till they have bored five or six holes, about 4 inches deep, in about one minute's time. The sides of ships are bored with an auger ; but as this is not only a tedious , but most laborious business, it is rather remarkable, that no machine has yet been invented to bore them by. I shall only venture a hint or two on the construction of such a machine as might possibly answer the purpose, and leave those to complete the idea thus suggested, who are more concerned in that profession. Might not then a tressel frame be made to slide to any part of the scaffolding of a ship's side ? And in this frame might there not be fixed a wheel to turn by hand, on the axis of which might be fixed different sized augers, so that by a method to keep this frame pressing to the sides of the ship, and turning the wheel by hand, holes might thus be bored in a quarter of the time, and a proportionate degree of ease, in comparison with the present plan. BOSSAGE, or BASSAGE, in architecture, is a term used for any stone which has a projecture from the wall, and is 776 BOT placed lineally in a building, afterwards to be carved into mouldings. This term is sometimes applied to rustic quoins, at the angles of any building. BOTANY, from Bora , a herb, signifies the knowledge of plants, and of the uses to which they may be applied. In the vegetable world, it seems to comprehend as much as anatomy does in the animal. It is not, however, my intention to introduce much on this subject, as it would be foreign to our plan ; yet as an account of various species of wood, is one leading object in this dictionary, it will, in this view, be proper to give a few of the out lines on the subject of botany. The subject is, doubtless, of importance in various respects and if the hints I have here selected from a few authors on the subject, induce a more general enquiry into the science of botany at large, probably they who find the benefit of it will not be unthankful for what is here said on the subject: To inculcate the utility of botanical skill, it has been observed, " That many animals are endowed with an instinctive faculty of distinguishing, with certainty, whether the food presented to them be salutary or noxious. Mankind have no such instinct ; but must have recourse to experience and observation. But these are not sufficient to guide us in every case. The traveller is often allured with the smell and taste, to eat poisonous fruit. A ship's company, in want of pro visions, may be thrown upon an uninhabited coast, or desert island. Totally ignorant of the nature of the plants they meet with, disease, or scarcity of animals, may make it absolutely necessary to use vegetable food. The consequence is dreadful ; they must first eat before any certain conclusion can be formed. Before the vegetables which grow in America, the East and West Indies, became familiar to our sailors, many lives were BOT 77 lost by trials of this kind : neither has all the information received from experience, been sufficient to prevent individuals from still falling a prey to ignorance or rash ness. Ifthe whole science of botany were so complete as some of its branches, very little skill in it would be sufficient to guard us infallibly from committing such fatal mistakes. There are certain orders and classes which are called natural, because every genus and species comprehended under them, are not only distinguished by the same characteristic marks, but likewise possess the same qualities, though not in an equal degree. For example: shew a botanist the flower of a plant whose calyx is a double valved glume, with three stamina, two pistils, and one naked seed ; he can pronounce, with absolute cer tainty, that the plant from which the flower was taken, bears seeds of a farinaceous quality, and that they may be safely used as food. In like manner, shew him a flower with 12 or more stamina, all inserted into the internal side of the calyx, though it belonged to a plant growing in Japan, he can pronounce, without hesitation, that the fruit of it may be eat with safety. On the other hand, shew him a plant whose flower has five stamina, one pistil, one petal or flower leaf, and whose fruit is ofthe berry kind, he will tell you to abstain from it, because it is poisonous. Facts of this kind render botany not only a respectable, but a most interesting science. With respect to medicine, the same thing holds good. It is found, by experience, that plants which are dis tinguished by the same characters in the flower and fruit, have the same qualities, though not always in an equal degree, as to strength or weakness ; so that, upon inspection of the flower and fruit, a botanist can deter mine, a priori, the effects that will result when taken 78 , BOT t

into the stomach. In order, therefore, to determine the medical virtues of all the plants belonging to a natural class, the physician has nothing to do but to ascertain, by a set of clear and unquestionable experiments, the vir tues of any one of them. This greatly shortens the labour of investigation. Supposing the number of known species to be twenty thousand ; by ascertaining the virtues of one genus, at a medium, you determine the virtues of 12 species. But by ascertaining the virtues of one genus belonging to a natural order, the virtues of perhaps 300 or more are ascertained. " Brit. Encyclop. Such a view of this subject, will serve to place it, in the view of a stranger, in a due light, and may, at least, lead him to venerate what he never may find leisure to attain the knowledge of. The father of the most generally approved system of botany, was Dr. Linnæus, professor of physic and botany, at Upsal, in Sweden. He published his famous work in the year 1735, which, by competent judges, has been received and followed as the most perfect arrangement of plants yet presented to the world All, however, that comes within the limits of this work, is to explain some of the principal outlines, and the terms connected with these, and to touch on that part ofthe subject which will, in some measure, assist the carver, as to the nature of leaves and flowers, for orna After what has been said, any thing more would be a deviation from the object we have in view. And, ment. 1st. All the known vegetable productions upon the surface ofthe earth, have been reduced, by naturalists, to classes , orders, genera, species, and varieties. The classes are composed of orders, the orders of genera, the genera of species, and the species of varities. To have a clear idea ofthis Linnæan arrangement, the whole circle of vegetables may be compared to the inhabitants of the BOT 79 earth ; so that by classes of vegetables are to be under stood botanical nations-all the inhabitants of the earth are divided into nations or kingdoms. In like manner, the orders are the tribes or divisions of these kingdoms ; the genera, the families of which these tribes are com posed ; the species, individuals of families ; and varieties, the difference of individuals. 2d. The number of classes or botanical nations, are 24; the number of orders, or botanical tribes, are about 100 ; the number of families, or genera, about 2000 ; and the individuals or species which compose these families, are 20,000 ; besides the varieties occasioned bythe accidental changes of cultivation . As nations are distinguished by names, as England, Scotland, for these two kingdoms, so the 24 classes have names peculiar to each, denoting the number of stamina which charac terise the classes . The terms stamina and pistilla, are expressive of the sexual distinction of male and female in plants ; and signifies the seed vessels, or male and female organs of vegetative generation . Each stamen consists oftwo parts : first, the filament or thread, which serves to elevate the anthera or summit, and, at the same time, connects it with the flower. And second, the anthera, or sunimit itself, which contains within it the pollen, and, when come to maturity, discharges the The pollen is the fine flowry dust contained and secreted within the anthera, and destined for the impregnation of the germen or rudiment of the fruit. See plate, Botany, No. 1 , where observe, a is the an thera, and b the filament. The number ofthese stamina constitute the different classes, which have names derived from the Greek, expressive of the number of stamina or principal circumstance, which obtains in the respective class or order which they serve to denomi nate. Hence the first class is called monandria. from povos, single, and avg , a husband, which signifies same. 80 BOT it has only one stamen , or male part ; diandria, two hus bands, or male parts ; triandria, three stamina or male parts ; tetrandria, four ; pentandria, five ; hexandria, six ; heptandria, seven : octandria, eight ; enneandria, nine ; and decandria, 10 stamina. These 10 classes are both male and female in one plant, and are therefore called her maphrodites, having both stamina and pistil : but if any flower of these classes has not the pistil, or female part, it is to be classed with some of the succeeding. Dodocandria, the title ofthe 11th class , imports that the flowers have 12 stamina. The class is not, however, confined to this number, but includes all such herma phrodite flowers as are furnished with any number of stamina, from 12 to 19, both included. The reason of the chasm in the classes from 10 to 12 stamina, is, that no flowers have yet been found with only 11 , so as to form a class. Icosandria, the 12th class, imports 20 stamina. In reducing plants of this kind to their classes, particular regard must be had to the insertion of the stamina. If they are inserted into the calyx or cup, the plant belongs to this class ; but if to the receptacle, or basis of the flower, it belongs to the next class, or 13th, which is polyandria . Polyandria, from λ , many, and, as before, avmp a husband or male, signifies many stamina. The fruits of this class are frequently poisonous , which are distinguish able by having the stamina inserted into the basis of the flower, and not the cup. Didynamia, the 14th class, from dis, twice, and duraμs, power, signifying the power or superiority of two ; be cause the flowers of this class have four stamina, of which there are two longer than the other. This cir cumstance distinguishes this class from the 4th, whose stamina are all of one length. Observe that the long BOT 81 Stamina are opposite to each other, and so are the short ones. Tetradynamia, the 15th class, signifies that in the six stamina of this class, there are four longer than the other two, which circumstance distinguishes it from the 6th, or Hexandria class. Monodelphia, the 16th class, from povos single, μονος adhows a brother, denoting the brotherhood of this class, bythe union of the filaments of the stamina, being joined together in one substance, at the base, out of which they proceed as from one mother. Diadelphia, the 17th class, signifies two brother hoods, or two sets of stamina united into one body, by the filaments. Polyadelphia, the 18th class, signifies many brother hoods, or the stamina united into three or more bundles, by the filaments. Syngenesia, the 19th class, from ouv together, and yenosa generation, that is , congeneration ; because the anthera or generating vessels, are united in a cylinder, and perform their office together, though their fila ments be separate. Gynandria, the 20th class , from yʊvn a wife, and avng a husband, denoting the union of the two ; because the stamina or male parts, grow upon the pistilla or female parts. Here the hermaphrodite flowers end, i. e. such as have stamina and pistilla in the same flower, or males and females in the same bed. Monoecia, the 21st class, from Movos single, and oxia a house or habitation ; because the male and female flowers grow from one root. The flowers of this class are not reckoned hermaphrodites, because, though they have male and female flowers in the same species, no single flower has both the male and female parts together, as in G 82 BOT the preceding classes ; for the flowers of this class, though growing from the same root, have only the male part in one, and the female in the other flower, by which they are distinguished from hermaphrodite classes. Dioecia, the 22d class, fi. e. ) two habitations ; and signifies that the male flower grows from one plant, and the female from another ; which circumstance is the difference between this and the preceding class. γαμος Polygamia, the 23d class, from Tokus many, and yapos marriage, which signifies that this class produces, either upon the same or different plants, hermaphrodite flowers, and also flowers of one sex only, be it male or female ; the latter of which receiving impregnation from, or giving it to the hermaphrodite flowers, as their sex may happen to be , the parts essential to generation in the hermaphrodites, do not confine themselves to the corresponding parts within the same flower, but become ofpromiscuous use. and γάμος Cryptogamia, the 24th class, from apurros concealed, yaμos a marriage, i. e. concealed marriages, and is applied to this class, because the plants belonging toit, either bear their flowers concealed within the fruit, or have them so small as to be imperceptible. Thus ends the botanical kingdoms, and we must next proceed to the tribes of which these kingdoms are com posed, which receive the name of ORDERS, being that botanical division which leads us a step nearer to the genus of plants. This second step of classification is taken from the female part of plants, as the first was from the male parts. Hence the denominations of the first 13 classes of orders, are expressed by the term yon a wife, and the numerals added to it, as monogynia, digynia, trigynia, tetragynia, pentagynia, hexagynia, heptagynia, octagy 1 best27 S BOT 83 -55 hale nich ane and is the and Juces. rodite ale of nation - their cration - to the Decome cealed and is ng toit, fruit, or ust next re com ch leads s second of part asses of and the ¡gynia , Etagy

nia, enneagynia, docagynia, dodecagynia, icosagynia, tetradygynia, from one to 13 pistilla or female parts. When these female parts have no stalk or filament, as the stamen or male part has, they are numbered by their stigmata or tops, which, in that case, adhere to the capsule, or husks, in the form of a small protuberance. " The orders of the 14th class are derived from a different source. The plants belonging to it have their seeds either inclosed in a capsule, or altogether uncovered. Hence they naturally admit of a division into the follow ing orders, namely, gymnospermia, which comprehends such as have their seeds naked ; and angiospermia, which comprehends such as have their seeds covered, or inclosed in a capsule. The 15th class is divided into two orders : such as have a short siliqua or pod ; and the siliquasa, or those which have a longer siliqua. The orders of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th classes, are taken from the number of stamina: as monedelphia, pentandria, decandria, poliandria. The 19th class consists of plants whose flowers are compounded of a great number of small flowers inclosed in one common calyx. The orders of this class are, polygamia, æqualis, or such whose floscules are all fur nished with stamina and pistils. The order ofthe 21st class, are partly taken from the number of stamina, and partly from the names and characters peculiar to some of the other classes, as moncecia triandria, moncecia gynandria. The orders of the 22d class are founded upon the number, union, and situation, ofthe stamina in the male flowers. The orders of the 23d class are taken from classical characters, as polygamia moncécia, polygamia dicecia, and polygamia tricecia. 84 BOT The 24th class is divided into the four following orders 1st. Filices, comprehending all plants that bear their seeds in the back or edges of the leaf, and those that are called capillary plants. 2d. Musci, which comprehends all the moss kind. 3d. Algæ, including lichens, fuci, and many others, whose parts of fructification are either altogether invisible, or exceedingly obscure. 4th. Fungi, comprehending all the mushroom tribe. " Brit. Encyclo. To shorten this article, which I fear will exceed my prescribed bounds, I proceed next to give a concise definition ofthe genera of plants. The GENERA includes the various families of which the tribes or orders are composed, and leads us still to a more perfect view of the nature of plants. According to the sexual theory of Linnæus, the flower and fruit are the foundation of generic distinctions . These are generally composed of seven parts ; the calyx, the corolla, the stamina, the pistillum, the pericarpium , the semina, the receptaculum ; and the presence or absence, the number, figure, proportion, and situation, of the several parts, constitute the generic characters of plants. 1st. The CALYX , a cup (see plate of flowers facing the article flower), is the termination of the outer bark of a plant. Its chief use is to inclose, support, and protect the other parts offructification , or parts essential to bearing fruit. When present, it is seated on the re ceptacle ; is distinguished by its figure, the number, division, and shape of its leaves or segments ; and by the following names, according to the circumstances with which it is attended. When the calyx surrounds the flower, it is termed perianthium : sometimes invo lucrum, a cover ; amenthum, a thong or kat kin ; spatha, a sheath; glume, a husk; calyptra, a veil or covering valva, infolding. BOT 85 7. کی r i, le. ny ise ch 3 ¡e S. X, n, or n. of ag rk nd ial e 1, ܟܕ. 's 28. The COROLLA, a wreath, or little crown, is the termination of the inner bark of the plant, which ac companies the fructification in the form of leaves, variously covered. It is generally seated on the receptacle, sometimes on the calyx, serving as an inner work of defence to the part it incloses. -The leaves of which the corolla are composed, are called petals, by the number, division, and shape, of which it is distinguished. There is an appendage to the petals, called the nectarium, (from nectar, the fabled drink of the heathen gods) , and is that part which contains the honey, the food of bees, and other insects. 3d. The stamina, (threads or chives, ) the male of the flower, proceeding from the wood of the plant, as we have noticed before . The filament, from filum a thread; and the anthera, from a3os, anthos a flower, have been noticed, because of its great utility in the fructification -See plates of Flowers. 4th. The PISTILLUM, or female part of the flower proceeding from the pith of the plant. It is that erect column which is generally placed in the centre of a flower, amidst the stamina; and consists of three parts, the germen, the style, and the stigma. The germen, a bud, is the base of the pistillum sup porting the style. The style from Gruλos, a column, is that part which elevates the stigma from the germen, in order to receive the influence ofthe stamina. The stigma, from Tuypa, a mark, is generally placed at the head of the style ; but sometimes regularly disposed along the side of it, and covered with a moisture to retain the pollen of the anthera. 5th, The PERICARPIUM ( round the fruit) is the ger men grown to maturity, and become a matrix, womb, or seed vessel. 86 BOT 6th, SEMINA, the seeds. Aseed is the essence ofthe fruit of every vegetable, containing the rudiments of a new vegetable, which is fertilized by the sprinkling of the pollen.

7th. The RECEPTACULUM is the base which receives, supports, and connects the other parts of fructification. SPECIES, or individuals of families, are distinguished bythe difference ofthe root, trunk, branches and leaves : yet all agreeing in the essential generic character, and are denoted by names expressive of the difference, or some other circumstance, added to the generic character ; as the difference of a family of children, who yet all have the leading features of their parents. In order, therefore, to investigate the species, it is necessary to understand those differences, and be acquainted with the names by which they are expressed ; as upon entering into a family of children that we were acquainted with, we should call them by their distinguishing name, from some mark of their countenance known to us, as well as from their size and age. The variety is an accidental mixture of these individuals. The parts of a plant are, 1. The root, the organ that nourishes the plant. 2. The trunk or stalk, the organ that multiplies it. 3. The branches, or divisions and sub-divisions of the stalk. 4. The petioles, or stalks that support the leaves. 5. The penduncles, or stalks that support the fruc tification. 6. The leaves, which are the organs of motion to the plant. Ofwhich there are the following variety-see the plate Botany. BOT 87 U a 5, ed20 Et Ch CO th ing ith, rom Il asI ota of C to No. No. 1. Orbicular, of a circu- 19. Hand shaped. lar form. 20. With winged clefts . 2. Subrotund, almost cit- 21. With winged clefts cular. gaged. 3. Ovate, orlike an oval. 22. Parted. 4. Egg shaped. 5. Oblong. 6. Spear shaped. 7. Strap shaped. 8. Awl shaped. 9. Kidney shaped. 10. Heart shaped. 11. Crescent shaped. 12. Triangular. 13. Arrow shaped. 14. Halberd shaped. 15. Divided or cleft. 16. Composed of three lobes. 17. Divided to the mid rib. 18. With five angles. 23. Tooth-like. 24. Indented. 25. Serrated or sawed. 26. Taper ending. 27. Accutely notched. 29. Wedge shaped. 29. Wrinkled. 30. Quinquangular. 34. Tongue shaped. 32. Scimetre shaped. 33. Deltoid, like the old Greek delta. 34. Three sided. 35. Channelled. 36. Furrowed. 37. Cylindrical. 38. Finger shaped, of two. LEAVES as to determination, fig. 39. Inflected, or bent inwards, when the leaf is turned upwards, toward the stem, as a. Erect, upright, when the angle they form with the stem is very small, as b. Expanding, patent, when they make an acute angle with the stem, as c. Horizontal, when they stand at right angles with the stem, as d. Reclined, reflex, when they are bowed downward, so that the apex or tip, is lower than the base, as e. Revolute, rolled back, and downwards, asf. 88 . BOT BOTANY- BAY-WOOD. That there should be such a vast quantity of different species of wood from this island is not surprising, when we consider its great extent, which is estimated to exceed the whole continent of Europe. The whole length of this island runs about two thousand miles from north-east to south-west ; and receives the name of NewSouth Wales from Capt. Cook. On this vast territory, Sir Joseph Banks, who accom panied the Captain, found an ample field for botanical researches ; and in compliment to him, one part of it was called Botany-Bay, which is the seat of our colony. All the specimens of wood imported from thence, that I have collected, are of a hardish texture, and some of it very ponderous ; but as that island remains in general still uncultivated, uncivilized, and in a great measure unexplored, there are no materials to assist us in giving a botanical description of the woods ; nor scarcely any distinction of names, except those which have been suggested, either from the smell or particular figure of various sorts of it. All that I can pretend to do, as to this wood, is to describe the colour and figure of such species as are adapted to cabinet work. At the time when Capt. Cook explored its coast in 1770, they found only two kinds of trees useful as timber ; the pine, and another, producing a kind of gum, which afterwards, at the settlement of our colony by Governor Philips, was found to possess medical qualities, for the removal of the dysentery, with which the first settlers were afflicted, owing to their want of fresh provisions. Yet it appears, that the country adjacent to Botany- Bay produces very many and large trees, requiring the work of 12 men of the colony for three or four days, to grub out of the earth so as to clear them away. At various times since the first settlement, we have brought to Eng land a variety of woods that have been acceptable in C BOT 89 a is eat ent bout and ook. om nical of it Jony. ence, me in at S or ch ular id to igure t in ber; vhich ernor r the tlers ons. Bay rk b Ornamenting cabinet work-some of which I shall notice, but with some doubt as to their being the produce of Botany-Bay or New South Wales. But if further certainty of information present itself, the result will be found under the article of Wood ; where the most per fect lists of woods 1 am able to collect shall be inserted. I have been favoured with only four specimens of differ ent species at present ; one of which is of an olive hue, intermixed with faintly dark strokes, not much unlike some of the Virginian walnut tree. The water colours which give this tint on white paper, is verditer green and Venetian red . The grain is close and straight, and may be used for small tables ; but it would require very lively banding wood to set it off. Another of a dirty orange hue, tolerably well figured, and a very fine grain, which might answer for some bandings, and in other cases for the body of a piece of furniture; it is moderately hard in texture, and may be imitated in colour by Venetian red and gumbouge, more inclining to the red. Athird sort is extremely beautiful, and nearly as hard as tulip wood. This wood is finely dappled with rich entwining strokes, on a high flesh-coloured ground. Indian red, thinly washed on paper, will give the hue of the ground ; to which, add a little lake and umber for the dapple. The last of the four is nearly of the same figure and texture, but having a darker ground ; and the same kind of dapple, inclining more to a deep brown . It is not so hard as the preceding sort, but being of a darker and more strongly contrasted figure, it will make handsome cross banding. The common name for all these, is Botany- Bay wood ; but as they are now described, may be thus distinguished-the olive-the orange-the flesh-and brown Botany-bay wood. There are a greater number of non-descripts, of a hard, plain, 90 BOX straight-gained quality, which, like other very hard woods, run small in the log, only 10 or 12 inches in diameter. BOTTLE-CASE, any kind of case made to receive a bottle or bottles. The difference between a bottle case and some other pieces of cabinet work made for wine bottles, seems, strictly speaking, to be only, in that the former, are made more exactly to the shape and size of a certain number of square bottles, merely for conveni ence but the latter, which are called cellarets, wine cisterns, or sarcophagus, which are not made strictly to the dimensions of the bottles, but large enough to hold six, eight, or ten round wine bottles, and have an ornamental appearance. See the article CELLARET and SARCOPHAGUS. BOX, in its most common acceptation, denotes a small chest or coffer for holding any thing. 10 BOX TREE, xa, dense or close, which is well known this wood is . The box tree is a genus of the order of tetrandria, belonging to the monoecia or 21st class of of plants. There is but one species of it evergreen ; which there are three varieties-1 . the common box tree -2. the narrow-leaved box tree-3. the dwarf box Box is well known in its dwarf state, and as tree. a shrub about 3 feet in height ; it becomes, however, when left to itself, a tree, 12 or 15 feet high, with a trunk equalling the human thigh in thickness, covered with a rugged, greyish bark ; that of the branches, yel lowish. The wood is of yellow colour, of an even close grain, very hard and ponderous. It is the only one of the European woods that will sink in water. The leaves are ovate in the common sort ; hard, smooth, glassy; very dark green above,, pale green underneath; and sometimes resembling those of the myrtle in shape. The box tree is a native of most parts BRA 91 1 a se ine he OF cni vine Chy to e 1 wa er of ss of

of

tree box nd as wever, ith a overed yel even only d en he rts of Europe, and in some parts of England , for which there is a hill, very noted in Surry, called Box Hill. The English wood is esteemed inferior to that which comes from the Levant; but the American box is pre ferable to it. The use of box is almost universal. " It may be propagated by cuttings, which are planted in autumn in a shady border, observing to keep them watered till they have taken root; when they may be transplanted into nurseries in October. It may be also propagated by laying down the branches, or from seeds, which should be sown soon after they are ripe, in a shady border." Wheeler's Dictionary. BRACE. In architecture, is to denote a piece of timber, framed with bevel joints. Its use is to keep the building from swerving either way. When braces are framed into king posts , or principal rafters, they are called struts. Amongst chair-makers, the term brace is ap plied to those pieces which are lipped in at the angles of the seat of a chair, to prevent the girth webbing from warping or straining the rails . BRACKET. Amongst joiners, are used at the ends of the steps of staircases, seeming to support the tread of the step, but are chiefly for ornament. There are also angle brackets in architecture, placed at the mitres for plastered coves in ceilings, &c. the curve of which must be drawn by ordinate lines, taken from the profile ofthe cove. Brackets, amongst cabinet-makers, are used to support various pieces of furniture ; in the place of which, turned stump feet are sometimes used in modern cabinet-making; but, in my opinion, brackets must have the preference in several cases, both for strength and beauty. If thermed feet are substituted for them, they ought to spread well in the taper, otherwise they look too feeble to support a massy piece of furniture. 92 BRA When tapered feet, either square or turned, are intro duced, the manner of fixing them ought to be care fully attended to, as otherwise they are very liable to break off. In plate 22, at No. 4, a method of fixing them is shewn, that will, it is presumed, be sufficient in point of strength. Observe, the part a is mitered on length wise of the wood, separate from the part b; or it may be half-lapped, and afterwards veneered ; then let it be mortised, in the manner as shewn at d, through into the bottom of the carcase. Lastly, put a screw or two through each piece into the bottom, and cut the tenons into the turned stumps, and glue them in ; after which, shape out the work, &c. Method 2. Suppose that the stump feet, No. 6 , shew no part of a, as at No. 4, then take a piece of half-inch wainscot, 6 inches long, and as broad or a little more than the square of the foot ; bevel it each way, and glueing it on the underside of the bottom , put a double mortice in it, and make the tenons and joints as shewn in fig. e. The scale of equal parts at No. 1 , are inches by which the proportions may be measured. As to any thing farther respecting No. 2 and 3, it is unnecessary , as the designs of themselves, shew to a workman, in what manner they must be executed. To find the lines for the true curve of any angle bracket, let fig. fbe the profile of the cove, and o,, its projection from the side wall, and p, q, the diagonal of the square ofthe projection : draw the ordinates 1,2,3,4, &c. at pleasure, as to their distance from each other ; draw p, r, perpendicular to p, q, and all the other ordi nates parallel to it. Lastly, take p, s, and place it on, ɲ, r; likewise 1 , 2, and 3, 4, and place them on their coinci dent ordinate ; and so of all the rest, by which you ob 30 CorThe ConClo&gandik, a" BRA 93 0 ! Te to nis int eth may it be the 0

re and uble wn by any ry, in le tain correspondent points to the plan, which give the true contours of the angle brackets. Clock brackets are used to place small time pieces. upon, when there is no other convenient place : but in good rooms, the chimney caps are made broad, of mar ble, and serve very advantageously to place a clock on. Sometimes they stand upon commodes, at the end of the room, facing the fire place ; but when these conve niences are wanting, a bracket supplies their place. For this purpose, I have given three designs, which will be easily understood by the workman, without any further illustration ; especially as the parts in brass work are marked b. Brackets for lamps , are usually cast in brass, but are sometimes made of mahogany, and differ little from clock brackets. The brackets employed for the support of lamps, are fixed sometimes to the hand-rail of the staircase by a clasp strap that screws to it ; and the projection of the bracket is towards the well of the staircase. At other times, they fix against the wall of the staircase, high enough to clear the head of a pas senger: these are fixed by a large patera, to which the bracket is fixed ; and in which there are holes to receive strong stucco nails, which drive into the wall. See two designs, plate 22. BRADS, a kind of nails used in buikding, which have no spreading heads, as other nails have. There are various sorts of them-joiners-brads, flooring-brads , batten-brads, bill-brads, or quarter heads. BRANCH. In botany, it denotes an arm of a tree, or a part, which sprouting out from the trunk, helps to form the head or crown of it. Branches do not spring out of the mere surface of the trunk, but are deeply rooted therein, so as not only to penetrate the cortical or 94 BRA barky substance, but also that of the wood, and even to the pith in some instances. Branches, amongst cabinet-makers, carvers, and brass founders , generally apply to some shape of wood, brass or other metal, prepared to hold lights in. They receive the appellation, both as issuing from the principal part of the tripod, urn, or other stand, and also from their being sometimes ornamented with various foliage, or leaves. See LIGHTS. BRASS, a most useful metal, made of copper and zinc. This composition was very early discovered ; as we read of it in the 4th of Genesis-It is there said, that " Tubal-cain was the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." And it is disputed by the learned, which of the two metals was first worked. There ap pears something like providence in so very ancient a knowledge of these two most useful of all materials. "The Ancient Britons, though acquainted from the remotest periods with the use of both these metals, remained long ignorant that they were to be obtained in this island. Before this discovery, they imported all their brass and iron from the continent" -and they con tinued to do so after they knew it was to be obtained at home. In these days brass was cheaper than iron, owing to the great manufactories of it which were in France, from which source was derived a plentiful supply. It appears that the very ancient armory of this and other nations, was made of brass, or ornamented with it. The Corinthian brass, famous in antiquity, was a mixture of gold, silver, and copper. This composition seems to have been consequent on the destruction and burning of Corinth by Mummius, when the prodigious quantities of gold, silver and copper in that city, ran ano B 02020 15 ་ BRA 95 ndod, They Sipal 101 iage, zinc. read ar ind.Pa als. the metals, tained ed all CO D. Iined n iron, verein lentiful is and with as a tion and ious ran together by the violence of the fire , and so formed that famous brass . Brass work is a material article in furniture , both for ornament and use , and comprehends a great variety of articles in locks , hinges , and handles

together with

curtain and sideboard rods , mouldings and fret ' work . In the brass work adapted for cabinet work, the French far exceed this country

as well as in their manner of

gilding , stiled or-molu . The elegance of their furniture chiefly depends upon their superior brass work

I am informed, however, that there are one or two English brass founders in London , not much inferior to the French . Brass beads , and small lines of brass , are now much in use in the English furniture , and looks very hand some in black rose and other dark wood grounds . The lines are made of thin sheet brass , which is cut by gages , made by the cabinet-makers for that purpose. The brass beads are fixed to by sharp points soldered to the inside of the bead, which drive into the wood to which the beads are fixed . BRAZIL WOOD-Brasil or Brasiletto-An American wood, of a red colour and very heavy

a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria class of plants . The flower has five petals , with the lowest more beautiful than the rest . Of this there are three species , the most remarkable of which is the brasiletto . ht grows naturally in the warmest parts of America , from whence the wood is imported for the dyers , who use it much. This tree is in general small in the trunk

some of them only 2 or 3 inches diameter, and 6 or 8 feet high

the branches are tender

, and full of small prickles

the leaves pinnated. The colour produced

from this wood is greatly improved by a solution of tin in aqua regia. The second sort of brazil wood is a 1 96 BRI • native of the same country with the first, but is of a larger size. It sends out many weak irregular branches, armed with short, strong, upright thorns. The leaves branch out in the same manner as the first . These plants may be propagated from seeds, which should be sown in small pots, filled with light rich earth, early in the spring, and plunged into a bed of tanner's bark. Being tender, they require to be always kept in the stove, and to be treated in the same manner as other exotics of that kind. British Encyclop. BREAK, in a bad sense, amongst designers and draughts men, is when the purity of a line is needlessly interrupted, by being broken into too many detached or smaller parts, and frequently destroys harmony in the compo sition, and consequently the beauty of the whole de sign. In a good sense it is taken to be a judicious division of parts in a whole, by which a pleasing variety is produced, without destroying breadth of parts, and boldness. In an architectural sense, it applies to the projecting or receding parts of buildings, in which case the moulding appears broken, as they are continued round the whole. Breaks, either in architecture or cabinet-making, may be proper, or improperly introduced, for the reasons now assigned, respecting painting or de signing ; when properly, they add greatly to the beauty of the whole.-See the article DESIGNING. BRICKS. Palladio calls bricks artificial stones, which he says, from their form, are called quadrilli, or bricks, which were in his time made of chalky, whitish, and soft earth. These, he says, must be cleared from clay and sand. The earth must be opened in autumn, and be tempered in the winter, and be made into bricks the summer following. But, says he, if necessity obliges you to mould them in winter, you must cover them with dry sand ; and with straw, if you mould them in summer. 1 WL0040to52Ph→ BRI 97 To S wes Ese be in ark. the ܗ SerS rts, ies ch ed ΟΙ ed, Je ty hP Bricks are of very ancient invention , as appears from sacred history

for the Tower of Babel was built with

them , which were made to an enormous size . The Greeks used three kinds of bricks

the 1st

, didoron , mean ing two palms in size

the 2d

, tetradoron , three palms

and pentadoron , that is , five palms or hands , each palm being nine inches in length

they therefore were

3 feet 9 inches long, and the two preceding in proportion

and their width was one foot . To each of these they had others half their size , that one might lap over the other, to strengthen the whole , and add beauty to the work. The Roman bricks were 18 inches long by 12 broad, which, by our measure , would only be 17 by 11 . Sir Henry Wotton speaks of a sort of bricks used at Venice , of which stately columns were built . They were first formed into a circular mould , and cut , before they were burnt, into four or more quarters or sides

afterwards , in laying, they were jointed so close , and the points concentered so exactly , that the pillars appeared one entire piece . The ordinary Paris brick is 8 inches long, 4 broad , and 2 thick , of French measure , which makes something more than our measure . The Roman bricks were dried to harden them , but not burnt . Pal ladio says they required two full years of drying , to bring them into proper season for use . Bricks amongst us are various , according to their various forms , dimen sions , uses , method of making, &c . The principal are compass bricks , of a circular form , walls . used in steyning Concave or hollow bricks , made to convey water, by joining two halves together , each being hol lowed about 1 inch in diameter . Feather edge bricks , which are like common statute bricks , only thinner on one edge than the other, and used for penning up the brick pannels in timber buildings . Cogging bricks are H 1 98 BRI used for making the indented works under the coping of walls built with great bricks. Caping or coping bricks, formed on purpose for caping walls. Dutch and Flemish bricks, used to pave yards , stables, and for soap-boilers' vaults and cisterns. Clinkers, such bricks as are glazed by the heat of the fire in making. Great bricks, used to build fence walls, are 12 inches long, 6 broad, and 3 thick. Pilaster or buttress bricks, have a notch at one end, half the breadth of the brick, with which to bind such work as is built with large bricks. And lastly, statute bricks, or small common bricks, which, when burnt, must be 9 inches long, and 4 inches broad, and 2 thick. BRIDGE. A well- known structure for the convenience of passing over a river, marshy ground, or deep valley. Of the last kind there are two neat ones leading from the old to the new town of Edinburgh. In introducing this term, it is not my intention to attempt to give any directions concerning their erection or proportions , but merely to present the reader with a concise view ofthe various sorts that have been constructed : any thing more would only be an improper intrusion on the limits. of this work ; as it is evident, that bridge-building, prac tically considered, lies out of the way of both cabinet makers and joiners ; except garden bridges, which are easily executed . To know, however, what has been done relative to their various modes of construction, and present improvements, is a matter of importance to the enquiring mind, and may tend to enlarge the ideas of a workman, respecting buildings of a more practical nature, and with which he is more likely to be con cerned. Ancient bridges seem to have been constructed more for the accommodation of warriors, by which to pass in great bodies to neighbouring countries, than for the convenience of travellers, or the promotion of com my H C Cra2011VAIA14 BRI 99 of ks ish ¡ers' ized ased , and at one bind stly, hea

ce

ey. om cing e any ns , but ofthe thi limi prac abiner char s bees 1, and to the Pical ཏྟཾ merce. Hence Palladio speaks of a noted wooden bridge, which Cæsar, the Roman Emperor, erected over the Rhine, when he determined to pass, with his army, over that river into Germany. This they more commonly did by a bridge of boats, which they linked together in such a manner as to extend the whole width of rivers, so as that a body of men might quickly pass over. This noted wooden bridge over the Rhine, was constructed by simply driving large piles of wood, at a convenient dis tance, regularly disposed, over the river, inclining to each at the top, in an angle of 20 or 25 degrees, which were secured, from side to side, in the width of the bridge, by strong tying bearers, over which beams were laid, lapping past each other, and so continued repeatedly to the whole width of the river. Others, in his time, were built without either piles or pillars, over narrow rivers of 100 or more feet, in such a way as to be both durable and safe. The invention of such bridges seem to have been suggested by the repeated consequences of torrents of water, caused by excessive rains, so that the piers or supports of bridges have been endangered by trunks of trees, and other large substances, perhaps ice, hurled against them by the rapid motion of the waters. The chief strength of such bridges consisted in the man ner of framing the side pieces, which served as a terrace battlement for the safety of passengers, as well as the main support to the whole. Their framing was made to rise in a very faint curve, and kept to its place by large screw bolts, in the manner that our carpenters screw up girders. At each side of the river they built strong buttresses of stone, on which the framing was rested. Of the ancient Roman bridges, that built by Trajan, over the Danube, is allowed to be the most magnificent. It was composed of 20 arches, of 150 feet in height, and their opening between each pier about 1

100 BRI 1 160 Roman feet, or about 150 of English measure

according to which measurement, it must have been above three times the length of Westminster bridge . In the year 1740 , at Chauffhausen , in Switzerland , where the Rhine is exceedingly rapid , by the force of whose waters , several stone bridges had been swept away

it was proposed

, by a carpenter of Appenzel , to construct a wooden bridge , of one arch only, to span this river, not less than 400 feet wide . To this man's proposals , the magistrates objected , on the grounds of its being impossible, or at least impracticable , to succeed with one arch only

and

, consequently , this ingenious carpenter was obliged to submit to make use of a middle pier of stone , which was left of one of the former bridges . He began the work , and framed it in wood in so ingenious a manner , as to render it doubtful , to succeed ing architects , whether the old stone pire were of any real use in supporting this new wooden bridge . The bridge was compleated in three years , at the moderate expence of 80001.; but has been entirely demolished by the French , in their late contests in that country . The most material improvement in the construction of modern bridges , has very recently been introduced by R. Burdon , Esq . member of parliament for Durham , and which he has laudably applied to the erection of an iron bridge over the Wear , at Sunderland , which is com posed only of one arch , 236 feet wide , and 94 feet high, from the surface of the water to the crown of the arch , which admits of ships of 200 or 300 tons , to pass through it with their compleat masts up . The bridge consists of six ribs , of cast iron , placed at 5 feet distance from each other

the spandrils are com

posed ofthe same metal in circles

and the ribs were put

together, over the water , in the short space of 10 days . The caraiage road over it is of timber planks , covered e. BRO 101 cen ge rd, e of Sept spar man': ds c ཝོ St ced aor ridge xpence by the uctio uced br Durban, ›n ofan is com et high e arch, › pass ed at om Put Lys. ered with marle, limestone, and gravel, after laying on the plank a cement of tar and chalk. The whole width of this bridge is 32 feet ; and on each side is a paved foot way, having an iron palisade, with lamps at intervals. For this bridge a patent was granted in 1795. Two other inventions of iron bridges have obtained patents : one by John Nash, in 1797, which is con structed by a regular arch, composed of thin iron, either wrought, cast, framed, or put together, so as to form hollow bodies , masses, or cubes. The arch of this bridge is formed by hollow frames or boxes, each box consisting of four sides and a bottom. The sides of these hollow boxes form the arch joints of the bridge, and tend to the centre which strikes the arch . These boxes being joined side to side, extend, in length, the width of the bridge, and are filled up with sand, gravel, or any kind of materials, to make them solid. Athird improvement of bridges, is bythe invention of Mr. Jordan , of Shepton Mallet, in the county of Somerset. The improvement proposed in this specifica tion, is to take off the usual pressure of heavy arches, by suspending them to incumbent ones, which are to carry the entire weight. But as this invention is com plex, and far from being so self- evident as the two pre ceding ones, it cannot be described in few words ; and, therefore, if the reader is concerned to know the par ticulars, he may consult the Patent Office in Chancery Lane. BRONZE. A compound of copper, tin, and zinc. When these metals are united in due proportion, they are brittle, hard, and sonorous. Of this composition they make bells , cannons, and statues, but vary the proportion of metal suitable to each. It appears that a fifth part of tin with copper, will so impregnate four parts of copper with its particles, that the former colour will 102 BRO prevail over the latter, which proves that there is a total change in the size and disposition of the pores of the compound metals . Hence, as the tin so effectually diffuses itself through all the substance of the copper, it prevents it from rusting, or covering with verdigrease ; and this is one reason why it is used for the above pur poses. It is particularly adapted to the construction of every article to be exposed to the weather. The greater fusibility ofbronze than copper, is also an advantageous property, and much facilitates the casting of large works BRONZE also denotes a prepared colour, wherewith to imitate bronze. There are two sorts, the red bronze, and the yellow or golden. The latter is made solely of copper- dust, which must be the finest and brightest that can be got : the former is made of the same, with the addition of a little quantity of red ochre well pulverized. Both these bronzes are laid on with varnish ; and to prevent the work from turning of a greenish hue, it must be dried over a chafing dish as soon as bronzed. BROWN. One ofthe compound colours, mixed in various tints between red and black . Water colour browns may be compounded of burnt Roman ochre, a little lamp. black , and lake. A darker brown of Nottingham ochre, lake, and lamp black. A reddish brown may be formed of Indian red, a very little lamp or ivory black, and a degree of white flake. Burnt umber is an excellent colour for hair brown ; bistre brown is of a yellow cast. See BISTRE. In oil painting, Brown is a principal colour in painting back grounds, but requires to be mixed with various degrees of white, black, Indian red, lake, and Prussian blue. Spanish brown, for common oil painting, is a most useful colour. It is an earth dug out of the ground, and is much in use amongst painters, as a cheap priming 1968 20C BUF 103 total of the tuali per, i Tea se e pur tion c greate tage larg ch :: nz y { the th the verize ! and , itmus AvarTOU Owns ittle lar am ochre e form k, ands browa Ini ·bad eesof mos d, a iming an colour. If it be freed from gravelly parts, to which it is subject, it not only grinds easy, but lays on pleasantly. The coarsest part of Spanish brown may do for priming timber work, as railing, gates, and farm-house doors and window shuts. But I recommend a little white lead to be mixed with it, for the preservation of the wood, and for the purpose of binding the Spanish brown more effectually. To finish the above kind of work, a second or third coat, of the finest part of the Spanish brown, should be used, with a little lead, Venetian red, and lamp black, in case it require to be well done ; and if the brown is wanted to be a bright one, let the Venetian red be prevalent in the mixture. BUFFET. Anciently, an apartment separated from the rest of the room by small pillars or balusters. Their use was for placing china and glass ware, with other articles of a similar nature. In houses of persons of distinction, in France, the Buffet is a detached room, decorated with pictures suitable to the use of such appartments, as fountains, cisterns, vases, &c. These ancient buffets seem to be in some measure superseded by the use of modern sideboards , but not altogether, as china is seldom , if ever, placed upon them: and we therefore think, that a buffet may, with some propriety, be restored to modern use, and prove ornamental to a breakfast room, answering as the repository of a tea equipage. Under this idea, we have given a design of one intended to be executed in the following style. See the annexed plate, the lower part of which is to be inclosed with doors, having silk curtains, with worked brass or wire before them. The upright border on the top of the lower part, is of brass, together with those round the china shelves. These shelves are supported at each end with four brass columns, made very light. The lights on each side are of brass, and may be un t

104 BUI screwed, and taken away occasionally. As these buffets would suit well to be placed one on each side of the fire place ofa breakfast room, they might very conveniently hold such branches, with the addition of one on the top, which may be screwed into a socket ; or a small figure holding a light might be placed upon it. Under the cornice is a Gothic drapery, and fringe above it ; and as for the other parts, they are sufficiently intelligent by the design itself, especially as there is a plan subjoined. BUILDING, in general, is the erection of habitations : but is sometimes used in a more comprehensive sense, and denotes the rearing up ofany kind of edifice or super structure. 1st. Our manner of building at present, is much supe rior to that of our ancestors in this island, who paid little regard to a proper portion of light, in any of their apartments, so that their stair-cases were like dead passages, without so much as a borrowed light ; and their rooms very contracted and low, with but little light comparatively with our modern structures. Of the truth of these remarks, several parts of the city of London bear witness to this day, both in the plan of the streets, and the structure of the houses, which would seem to have been originally designed to exclude both light and air. The same may be observed of other cities, and which could only originate in the mercenary and contracted minds of the citizens. The Greeks and Romans were particular in the choice of their situation , which they judged of by the principles of philosophy, and therefore avoided to build near marshy grounds or fens, chusing a place to build on, which most favoured a wholesome air, and that would welcome the chearing beams of the sun, and screen from the bitter blasts of winter. Good pasturage, E BUI 105 affers

fire

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pon it. e above fficiently here is a rations sense, uper. jupe little i their e dead ht; and but little es. Of e city of an of the ch would ude both of other rcenary in the the oy Build build that and age, water, wood, and fuel, are essential properties in a well situated house. 2d. The next thing in building, is to lay the founda tion in a proper manner. For this purpose, the qualities of the ground for a considerable depth, must be care fully looked into. The best foundation is that which consists of gravel or stone ; but in order to know whether the inferior strata are sufficient for the support of the building, it has by some architects been thought advisable, first to sink wells at some small distance from the place of the intended building ; so that by attending to what is thrown up in digging these, the builder will be a judge of the strata which offer for a foundation : for though stony or gravelly strata be good foundations, yet these are not without exceptions, because of their being accompanied sometimes with hollow places. To guard against which, Palladio advises to throw down great weights on the ground, and to observe whether the ground thus tried, sound hollow, or shakes . He thinks too, that by beating a drum, the skilful ear in such sounds, will be able to distinguish a false from a solid foundation. But if the strata of stone and gravel bemixed with a solid substance of earth between them, there needs no further enquiry. The other matters which may occur for a foundation, are clay, sand, common earth, and rotten boggy ground. It has been observed, that clay will both raise and sink a foundation, in different cases ; yet it possesses a solidity that, in general, may be depended upon. The marshy, boggy ground, is, of all others, the most difficult to build upon : yet, by proper management, even great buildings may be erected with safety in such cases, by means of piles, which sometimes prove the most se cure foundations, notwithstanding the other disadvan tages. Foundations near the edge of waters, require to IT 106 BUI M be sounded to the very bottom , as many shocking acci dents have happened from ground being undermined by rivers. 3d. Another very material thing in building, is a care ful and judicious attention to proper drains, for keeping the foundation dry, and carrying off waters that would stagnate, and prove pernicious to the health of the inhabitants. For want of such drains, several houses, in country towns, are rendered unwholesome ; for during wet weather, the damp will rise on the walls to a con siderable height, and often penetrate through the floors. All drains ought to be arched over at the top, and are most conveniently made of brick. According to their different sizes, the following proportions of height and thickness maybe observed . Ifthe drain be 18 inches wide, the height of the walls may be 1 foot, and their thickness 9 inches : the bottom may be paved of brick flat wise, and the arch turned 4 inches thick. If the drain be 22 inches wide, the side walls are then to be 15 inches in height, and the rest constructed as before. A drain of a yard wide should have the same height, and the arch turned over it ought to be 9 inches thick. Drains should also be covered in such a manner as they may be easily got at to clean them. It must also be considered that water collected in drains, is always loaded with a vast quantity ofsediment, which, by its continual falling to the bottom, will be apt to choak up the drain, especially at those places where there happen to be angles in the course. To prevent this, certain cavities must be disposed at proper distances from each other. Into these the sedi ment will be collected, and they are, for that reason, called sess-pools. Where the water enters the drain, there should always be a sess-pool, which will prevent much ofthe sediment from entering into the drain at all. In many cases they are, however, not wanted- where the pneTU464COOTSO BUI 107 ! water is not collected in great quantities, nor passes through dirty places before it enters the drain. 4th. In laying the foundation, its face must be made perfectly level and smooth, and on which some archi tects recommend a covering of oak plank for the first course, afterwards stone laid with exact care. The stone is laid on the oak plank without mortar, as it tends to rot the wood. If the materials for the founda tion be only of brick, which will do very well for light buildings, they should be laid very regularly, correctly, and with a moderate quantity of lime, that the bricks may sooner unite, and the building be less liable to sink or give way, than it would with a large quantity of mortar. It is very improper to fill up a foundation with loose stones or bricks thrown in at random, which will greatly endanger the whole superstructure. If the foundation be laid with stones only, care should be taken to place the stones as they lie in the quarry ; for if they are otherwise laid, they will be more liable to split. Where the foundation of a principal wall is laid upon piles, it will be necessary to pile the foundations of par tition walls, though not so strongly. The thickness of foundation walls, ought, in general, to be double of that which they are to support : and these also, to save expence, are diminished in regular grada tion to the highest floor. 5th. After the walls are finished, the roof is the next consideration ; the weight of which must be proportioned to the strength of the walls. It must be constructed to press equally upon the building ; and the inner walls are jointly to bear a part of the whole. The floors of the same story, should be all perfectly upon a level, not even a threshold rising above the rest ; and if in any part there is a room or closet whose floor is not level, it ought not In old to be left so, but made equal with the rest. 1B 108 BUI fashioned houses, the floors vary sometimes a step or two in height, in which case a new floor should be formed over the old one, except the height of the ceiling will not absolutely admit of it. In country houses, some floors are made of clay, ox blood, and a moderate portion of sharp sand. These three ingredients are beaten thoroughly together, and well spread, forming a good floor for lower rooms. In good houses, these sort of floors are made of plaster of Paris, beaten and sifted , and mixed with other ingredients of a uniting quality. Such floors should be made in the middle of summer, for the sake of drying more quickly. 6th. The ornamental part of building requires great taste and judgment, so as neither to be too sparing nor too profuse. Something of sculpture is agreeable at the approach of a building, and at the entrance, with moderation. In the entrance hall, figures from the antique are beautiful, when employed to sustain or hold up lamps to light passengers in. A front door we conceive to be best ornamented by a doric column, without either base or plinth, with a plain shaft, one third of the height of the plinth from the ground, and the remaining two-thirds fluted in the manner peculiar to that order. Niches are an agreeable ornament in walls, that would otherwise appear dead and heavy. These niches are suitable receptacles of statues in white marble ; but if the niches be finished in white plaster, they ought to be coloured of a grey tint, to relieve the figure. Niches had their origin from the Pagan temples, in which were placed such statues as were expressive of the supposed attributes of the idol they worshipped. It is, doubtless, matter of thankfulness, that we are so far enlightened by divine revelation, as only to use such under the idea of innocent ornaments. BUI 109 1 f S Paintings are a great ornament to edifices, but cannot be included in the nature of building ; we shall therefore omit it here, and touch upon it under the article FURNISH. 7th. In building, a special regard ought to be paid to the distribution of light, and the position of the several appartments relative to the course of the sun ; we mean in cases where there is an opportunity, and it is required to be observed ; yet on all occasions, the article of light is more or less necessary to be considered. The due proportion of light to a room, has an agree able effect ; for nothing in nature, that is the object of sight, proves pleasant without it. The rule proposed by some architects, as to the quantity oflight to a room, is as follows. They multiply the length and breadth of the room, and the product of these by the height, of which quantity they find the square root, and assign it for the proportion of light required ; so that a room shall neither be glaringly light, nor gloomily dull. This proportion amounts to nearly one-fifth part of the whole front of a room to be ap propriated for light ; and, therefore, if it were 24 feet long, and 14 feet wide, 3 windows, 3 feet 6 inches broad, by 7 feet high, would amount to that proportion. Three windows of this size, would leave 2 feet of wall at each end of the room, and four feet between each window, with 3 feet of wall above and below each. This, in my opinion, is a due proportion, especially for country houses, where the light has the freest access to each aperture : but some situations in London would require one-fourth part of a front wall for light, especially in adopting the present mode of bringing the drawing-room windows down to the floor, and in consideration of the drapery that is now hung to them. 8th. The proper distribution of rooms has, as we have 110 BUI noticed, a relation to the course of the sun, to avoid too great heat in the summer, and intense cold in winter ; and also that daily light may come in to suit the use of the different appartments. As the eastern sun oughtto regulate our time of rising in general, bed rooms are properly on that side of a house. In this situation, a bed room has early light without heat, which can be of fensive to none but sluggards. A sitting room is well placed in the south for winter use, as the sun will come in agreeably warm at the meridian. But in summer it may be inconveniently hot, which is sometimes avoided by having a middle room between the north and south of large houses, for it is of such only we have an eye to, whose local circumstances will admit of such a variety. Drawing rooms and dining parlours are best situated on the west, as they are generally used in the after part of the day ; especially for summer use, as the declining sun casts an agreeable shade upon objects, and produces a regaling sensation. Libraries may be on the east side, under the bed rooms ; for every one will allow, that to rise with the sun is the best season to commence our studies . The north is most properly appropriated for butteries, pantries, and cellars , particularly in summer, when the heat of the sun would endanger every kind of pro vision. For other particulars relative to the ornamental part of building, whether external or internal , see ORDERS and ORNAMENT. But it may be necessary to observe, that there are many laws enacted for the safety and regulation of buildings: If a house new built exceed the ancient foundation, so as to hinder the light or air of another house, action lies against the builder. In London, a man may place ladders or poles upon the ground, or BUR 111 against adjoining houses, for building his own, but he may not break ground : and builders of houses ought to have licence from the mayor and aldermen. The laws for regulating buildings, and preventing mischief by fire, in the cities of London and Westminster, and other places within the weekly bills of mortality, are reduced into one act, by statute 14 Geo. III. c. 78, dated from the 24th ofJune, 1774 : which act has been published at full length by I, and J. Taylor, No. 56, High Hol born, to which the reader is referred for all the par ticulars respecting government restrictions in building, BUREAU, in French, is a small chest of drawers. In England it has generally been applied to common desks with drawers under them, such as are made very fre quently in country towns. They run from 3 to 4 feet long, and have three heights of common drawers under them , the upper one divided into two in length. The desk flap turns down to 30 inches perpendicular height from the ground, or a little less, for sitting to write at, The inside of the desk part is filled up with small drawers, and holes for letters. These pieces of furniture are nearly obsolete in London ; at least they are so amongst fashionable people. I have, however, en deavoured to retrieve their obscurity, by adding to them an open book case, and modernizing the lower part, as in plate 23, where they are called Bureau Bookcase. This design is intended to be for the use of a lady ; and should be executed in black rose wood, and brass ornaments, to give it a proper appearance. The pillars which support the shelves are brass, and all the frets and borders round them, to keep in the books. The flap is intended to fall flush with the sloped ends, with a brass moulding to hide the joints. The drawer in the front rail is the only thing which needs to be employed in supporting the fall, though in the old way they have a 112 BUT loper at each end, separated by a partition from the drawer. The flap should be lined with green leather; and the shelf below has a rim round the back and ends, which are framed into the legs in three-quarter maho gany, veneered and rabetted to receive the shelf, to which it is screwed ; and observe, these rails are tapered from the rabbet to a quarter of an inch on the upper edge. BUST, or Busto, in sculpture, denotes the figure or por trait of a person in relievo, shewing only the head, shoulders , and stomach, the arms being lopped off. These pieces of sculpture are generally placed upon a pedestal or console. As the image of Mercury was, amongst the Athenians, frequently represented in this manner; the term hermes, in Greek, often signifies a bust. Busto, in painting, denotes a figure whose head and shoulders only appear. BUT-HINGE, so called, because they butt or stop against some substance of wood, at the edge of any thing to which they are screwed.. There are a great variety of but-hinges in the practice of cabinet-making and joinery. Stop but-hinges are so named, because the door or top of any piece of work only turns a little more than perpendicular to the edge or surface on which they are set-if they are pressed further the hinge will break. Rising but-hinges are such, as turn upon a screw in their joint, and are used to doors, that as they open they may clear a carpet, which otherwise they would rub against. Slip-off but-hinges are used in cases where the door or window blind, to which they are screwed, are wanted to be taken off occasionally. Lap-over but- hinges are used to any top of a piece I BUT 113 he "; S, to Ted per Dor ad, ese =tal S, in ad ofwork that requires it to be raised about seven-eighths of an inch above the edge to which it is screwed, so that another top may fall in between them. Desk but-hinges, are the same as those of the com mon sort, only made twice the breadth in the strap part. For any other kind of hinges , see HINGE. BUTLER. Some derive it from bouteiller, French, bateler, or boiller. The name anciently given to an officer in the court of France, being the same as the great cup bearer of the present times. In the common accepta tion of the word, it is an officer in the houses of princes and great men, whose principal business is to look after the wine, plate, &c. BUTLER'S TRAY. Used at a sideboard by the butler, who has the care of the liquor at a gentleman's table . These trays are made of mahogany ; half inch Honduras will do for the sides, but the bottoms ought always to be made of Spanish, or other hard wood, otherwise the glasses and slop will leave such a print, on soft wood, as cannot easily be erased. Their size runs about 27 to 30 inches the longest way, by 20 to 22 in width, having one end made nearly open, for the convenience of having easy access to the glasses. The sides are about 34 inches deep, rounded at the top, scolloped down to the narrow end, or front (it may be called, ) in the form of an ogee. Lastly, the sides have handle holes, about 4 inches long, and cut 14 inch from the upper edge. For any other kind of tray, see TRAY. BUTTER-TREE is a native of Africa, found in great abundance in the interior of that continent. This tree very much resembles the American oak ; and the nut, from the kernel of which the butter is prepared, by boil ing it in water, has somewhat the appearance of a Spanish olive. The kernel is enclosed, or envelloped, in a sweet pulp, under a thin green rind. It is said I 8 $ 6 " 114 CAB that the butter made of this kernel, will keep a year without salt; that it is whiter, firmer, and of a richer flavour, than the best butter made of cow's milk. Asto the nature of the wood, I find no information ; but the cultivation, nurture, and produce of it, feems to be the chief object of African inland industry. BUTTERY. The room where provisions are laid up -All that need' cold or fresh air. It is supposed to be from the French bouter, to place or lay up. The position of the buttery will be found to answer best on the north side of any building. It is often placed on the top of cellar stairs. BUTTRESS, or BUTMENT, is a prop, or wall built to support another wall, against which it is erected. Hence buttresses are used against the angles of some ancient steeples, and other buildings of stone. Those massy buildings of stone, built on each side of a river, against which all the arches of a bridge press from the centre each way, are properly termed butments, or buttresses. C CABIN, from chabin, Welsh, a cottage, a small room; ? chamber in a ship. In ships of the line, the cabin for the chiefofficer, is furnished with an open gallery at the stern, and a small one at each quarter. In small sea port towns, cabin building is generally the work of joiners, who consider it as a master piece to finish one properly: and before they can do this, it requires some experience, as most of the work is under bevel lines. One great defect in cabin building, is not having the floor perfectly even. I see no reason why they should not, but what may be easily obviated. CAB 115 I CABINET, from the French, a closet or small room. The celebrated Bacon thus directs in the furnishing of a favourite room ; " at both corners of the further side, let there be two delicate or rich cabinets, daintily paved, richly arranged, glazed with crystaline glass, and a rich cupola in the midst, and all other elegancies that may be thought on." Cabinet is taken for a private room in which consulta tions are held. In an architectural sense, it signifies a retired place in fine buildings, set apart for writing, studying, or preserving any thing that is precious. Hence it is applied to those curious and neat pieces of furniture, used by ladies, in which to preserve their trinkets, and other curious matters. The cabinets of gentlemen, consist in ancient medals, manuscripts, and drawings, &c. with places fitted up for some natural curiosities. These are the articles of furniture which first gave rise to the general term cabinet making, which has been, from the beginning of this century, considered as one of the leading mechanical professions, in every polite nation in Europe. This appears to be strikingly instanced in France, at the present time, in which, it appears, from unquestion able testimony, that cabinet work is more strikingly improved there, than any other branch of mechanical trade whatever yet I pretend not to say, that this is the surest symptom of the future flourishing state of that kingdom .

Since the happy return and settlement of peace be tween the two contending nations, some of our first artists have visited France, who have uniformly declared, that the cabinet work is manufactured to the highest perfection in Paris. And, for this purpose, it appears 116 CAB (government being so desirous that France should excel all other nations in their taste of furniture, ) that they employ a superintender to give directions to the manufacturer, so that the work may not be executed in a poor style. Whether such an example ought to be imitated by us, I shall leave to the opinion of others ; but it seems to me adapted to gain the point they have in view, namely, to make them famous, and render Paris the first market of fashion in Europe. In obtaining ttheir wished-for reputation, London taste will gradually sink in the estimation of lovers of fine cabinet work ; and, consequently, our noble houses must be presently stored with Paris chairs, beds, &c. &c. This we must bring upon ourselves, by foolishly staring after French fashions, instead of exerting ourselves to improve our own, by granting suitable encouragement to designers and artists, for that purpose. Instead of this, when our tradesmen are desirous to draw the best customers to their ware-rooms, they hasten over to Paris, or other wise pretend to go there, plainly indicating either our own defects in cabinet making, or extreme ignorance, that we must be pleased and attracted by the mere sound of French taste. To me there appears one obvious delusion, in the reports concerning French furniture, arising from the temptation that every tradesman who has been at the expence of a Paris journey, is under, to speak largely of the great things that he has seen there ; which, doubt less, gives him a superiority over his neighbour, who never reached to the length of Dover. In consequence of such stupidly absurd prejudices thus gendered, a clumsy three-footed stool from France, will be admired by our connoisseurs, in preference to a first rate cabinet of English production . We poor Englishmen are hardly able to judge of the due' projection of a torus, of the tal2002 CAB 117 " beauty of a simple curve, nor even of a right line, except we borrow these from a French plan ! After all, however, I am of opinion, that if our noble men and gentry would contribute as much to the en couragement of a national brass foundry, as they do to some other institutions of less consequence, we might have as elegant brass work for cabinets, cast in London, as they have in Paris. It is in this article they excel us, and by which they set off cabinet work ; which, without it, would not bear a comparison with ours, neither in design, nor neatness of execution. The quality of cabinet work is extremely variable in both countries, arising chiefly from the abilities of the workman, the directions given him, or the state of the wood which is used to work on: and hence it is difficult to ascertain, in many instances, the true value of furni ture, by those who are strangers to the business. On this account, gentlemen often think themselves imposed upon in the high price they must give for a good article, in comparison with what the same piece of furniture nominally, may be bought for at some manufactories. If, however, any man sell trash for a high price, he ought to be reprobated : yet such is the inconvenience of keeping a large stock of seasoned wood, that it requires a considerable property even to support but a moderately large manufactory, with all that variety ofdry wood, that is absolutely necessary ; so that the pressing necessities of some tradesmen, oblige them to work up wood unfit for use, and perfectly against the inclinations of every honest man. But if those who have acquired ample fortunes from the profits of their business, vend unseasoned wood, to impose on the unwary gentleman, scarcely any degree of disgrace can be too severe for them. As for the condition of those tradesmen who labour 118 CAB under the heavy expences of a large family, as well as to struggle with the weight of supporting a make-shift stock of wood, it is not impossible, but that a plan might be adopted to afford a proper relief, especially to those of them known to be industrious and ingenious ; by which, at a fair and moderate price, they might have any quantity of all the various wood used in cabinet making, well seasoned. And we think that such a plan of relief might be forwarded by noblemen and gentle men, with great ease, and every way consistent with good policy, industry, and a just reward to the ingenious and otherwise praise-worthy cabinet maker. A A public wood-yard would not only be attended with such benefits, but would greatly contribute towards the improvement of cabinet making in general, so that by such like institutions, in time, London might be a more famous market for every species of cabinet work, than Paris now is. I mention these things with a view to national credit, and the benefit of trade, and not from. my own desire to recommend any extravagant steps in the purchase of grand furniture ; for I can assure the reader, though I am thus employed in racking my inven tion to design fine and pleasing cabinet work, I can be well content to sit on a wooden bottom chair myself, provided I can but have common food and raiment wherewith to pass through life in peace. In plate 24, is a design for a cabinet intended for the use of a lady. The component parts of this piece, will appear so clear to the workman, as to require but very little to explain it. The round ends of the lower part, may be either formed of solid doors, veneered, and banded, or of wire and silk, as those in the hollow of the front. The insides of the round ends, are for plain cupboards, with a single shelf in the middle. Within the front doors, may be some drawers at the bottom, .CAB 119 and two sliding or moving shelves for books. Inathe frieze part, there may be drawers, one of which may have a small rising flap to write a note upon. If the cabinet be of black rose wood, the columns or legs of the cabinet ought to be carved and gilt. The open wings of the upper part, may be either cut out in wood glued up in thicknesses, in the manner of the fret work formerly used, or may be cast in brass. The tray tops on the upper parts, ought decidedly to be in brass, both for strength andbeauty ; and observe, that the squares on, the top recede from each other in front equal to the differ ence of their length at each end. The top ornament is entirely round, and fluted in some form, with a turned ball at the summit, the whole of which ornament is supposed to fill the area of the highest step, which is square. The ornament at the top of the framing of both lower and upper doors, is intended to be a part of the framing, to be cut out in a light manner, and gilt, which will suit the wire work before the silk. Lastly, the ornament ofthe upper and lower friezes are supposed to be inlaid brass, if the commode be of real black rose wood; but if only painted, it must be in gilding, Plate 25, is another design, which, from the preceding description, may be more readily understood, though the shapes be varied, for all the parts are nearly for the same use as those in the other design. The middle part, however, being a suitable length and height, a lady may use the drawer in the frieze as a dressing convenience ; for which reason a piece of glass is introduced in the back ofthe upper part, but which, independent of dress ing, will not be improper as an ornament. Lastly, under both views, the light at each end will be admitted as a necessary addition. CABINET, in gardening, a little insulated building, in manner ofa summer-house, built in any agreeable form, 1 120 CAD and which should be open on all sides. Its situation ought to be retired, and in which the free air may be taken, in hot weather, under cover. CABLE, in the ornamental part of architecture, is pro perly an inverted flute inserted between two fillets. When both cabling and fluting are introduced in the shaft of a column, or table leg, one-third of the length is assigned for the cabling, and two-thirds for the fluting. The term cable thus applied, originated, probably, from the inverted flute being carved so as to have the appear ance of a cable rope. This sort of carved moulding is in use at this time, and has a good effect when neatly executed. In plate 9, No. 5, is a carved torus or bead of this kind. The common cabling, however, as in serted between two fillets, is far from being in good taste ; and in the purest times of ancient architecture, was only introduced in cases of necessity, to strengthen the flutings of such works as were exposed to violence. In any column, it appears to me unchaste, and an undue interruption of the fluting of the orders. Hence, that part of the column which formerly in England used to be cabled, is, by modern architects, in cases of necessity, left quite plain, which, doubtless, is preferable. But the inexperienced reader is not to imagine, that there are the same objections to reeding, which, in cabinet work, is a pleasing and very proper ornament. See REEDING. CABRIOLE, a French easy chair-from the name of the person who invented or introduced them. See pl. 8 , No. 1 . CADDY, from Cadus, or cad. an ancient measure for wine. This word is now applied to various kinds of tea chests, of square, octagon and circular shapes. CADENE. One of the kind of Europeans import from the Levant. sort of all ; and are sold by the two piastres per carpet. " Brit. Encyclop. carpets which the They are the worst piece, from one to CAL 121 1 • CADUCEUS. A rod entwined at one end by two ser pents, in the form of two semi- circles. It was the attribute of Mercury, and was given him, as the story goes, by Apollo, in return for the lyre. This caducéus had also a pair of wings. This rod, according to poetical fiction, is said to perform wonders, as laying men asleep, and even raising the dead. By the two serpents, is represented prudence or wisdom ; and by the wings, diligence. When the caduceus is found upon medals, it is a common emblem of peace, pros perity, and good conduct. The ambassadors of Rome, when sent to treat of peace, carried in their hands a golden caduceus, whence these ambassadors were called caduciators ; as those sent to declare war, were called feciales. CAISSON. Awooden frame or chest used in laying the foundation of a bridge. By such caissons, were the piers of Westminster bridge built. The method is to fill the caissons with so much of the builded pier as it will float with, and then swim it to the proper place, where the pier thus built, is to find a foundation. When it is fixed over the proper place, they make the bed of the river as clear as they can of loose sand, and having built as much more of the pier as will sink it, it then settles down to the bottom. CALAMANCO. A sort of woollen stuff manufactured in England and Brabant. It has a fine gloss, and is checquered in the warp, whence the checks only ap pear on the right side. Some calamancos are quite plain, others have broad stripes adorned with flowers, some with broad stripes quite plain, and others watered. CALIDUCT, in ancient architecture, pipes or canals dis posed along the walls of houses or apartments, by which to convey heat to any part of the building, from one common furnace. Something ofthis nature is, on some occasions, used by the moderns. 122 CAM ! CALKING. A term used amongst artists, to denote drawings done by tracing from some print or design, by rubbing it on the back part with red or black chalk, which being laid on a sheet of clean paper, and traced over with a point made on purpose, leaves an impression ofthe print, or original design : and if such calking be taken to a copper-plate printer, to make it pass through the rolling-press, the strokes of the red chalk will not easily rub off, CALLIOPE, in the Pagan mythology, is the muse that presides over elegance and heroic verse. The name, in Greek, signifies sweetness of voice. In painting, this

muse is represented with a coronet of gold upon her

head; and, on her left arm, garlands of bay leaves, to bestow upon poots as a reward ; and, in her right hand, three books, with the names of the famous poets, Homer, Virgil, and Ovid. CALLIPERS, or CALLIBER-COMPASSES, are those made with arched legs, to take the diameter of round or swell ing bodies-chiefly used by turners. CAMBLET, or CHAMBLET, a stuff sometimes of wool, silk, and sometimes hair, especially that of goats, with wool or silk. In some the warp is silk and wool twisted together, and the woof of hair. The true or oriental camblet, is made of the pure hair of a sort of goat frequent about Angora, and which makes the riches of that city. We have no camblets made in Europe of the goat's hair alone ; even at Brussels they find it necessary to add a mixture of woollen thread. England, France, Holland, and Flanders, are the chief places of this manufacture. Brussels exceeds them all in the beauty and quality ofits camblets : those of England are reputed the second. Figured camblets are those of one colour, whereon are stamped various figures, flowers, foliage, &c. and by means of hot irons, which are a kind of 67 CAM 123 moulds, passed, together with the stuff, under a press. These are chiefly brought from Amiens, in Flanders. The commerce of these was anciently much more con siderable than at present. Watered camblets, are those which after weaving receive a certain preparation with water, and are after wards passed under a hot-press, which gives them a smoothness and lustre. Waved camblets, are those whereon waves are im pressed, as on tabbies, by means of a callender, under which they are passed and repassed several times. Brit. Encyclop. CAMP. The ground on which an army pitch their tents. In encampments, persons of the highest distinction are obliged to accommodate themselves to such tempo rary circumstances, which encampments are ever subject to. Hence every article of an absolutely necessary kind, must be made very portable, both for package, and that such utensils may not retard a rapid movement, either after or from the enemy. The articles of cabinet work used in such services, are, therefore, each of them required to be folded in the most compact manner that can be devised ; yet this is to be done in such a way as, that when they are opened out, they will answer their intended purpose. And it is to be observed, that most of the things which are of this nature, will also suit a cabin or sea voyage. There are therefore camp or field bedsteads, camp chairs, desks, stools, and tables. Of camp or field bed steads there are a great variety, which we need not to mention, as they have all folding tester laths, either hexagonal or elliptical shaped, and hinged so as to fold close together. In size they run about 6 feet long, and 3 feet 6 or 9 inches in width, and between 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet high, to the crown of the tester. These may 124 CAM be considered for domestic use, and suit for low rooms, either for servants or children to sleep upon ; and they receive this name on account of their being similar in size and shape to those really used in camps ; one of which I shall describe as in plate 15, which is made to fold close together, so that a case of about 15 inches square, and 3 feet 8 inches long, will hold both the frame and tester lath. The pillars are framed fast into the head and foot rail d, and the sides bo, are in three lengths, and hinged in the middle, on the outside, as shewn in the design . The length e, is about 6 inches, framed fast into the head pillar and to this length e, is f hinged, on the inside, with the same kind of hinge.' The same thing is done on the other side ; but observe, the length e must be at the opposite angle of the bed frame, in order that the frames may receive each other when they are folded in. To understand which, suppose b to move round to c, as described by the dotted curve line. Then the joint f follows, and the side lays close to b. Atthe same time o falls to d, and h against o , as must be obvious by a little reflection. The pillars have each of them two rule joints, one for the part of it above the seat of the bed, and the other for the stump part below it. And thus the pillars will fold upon each other, and the stumps turn up to the under side of the rail ; and observe, when the stump is turned down, as when the bed is in use, there is an iron hook and eye to keep it from turning from its place at k. The tester rail is hinged in three parts ; and there are two laths across to keep them firm, as also in the bed frame, morticed in below the sacking, and which are made hollow to clear it, and to slip in with the hand at pleasure. I have shewn a part of the sacking only, that the hinging of the frame might be seen. In plate &, is a camp table, which consists of two 1 CAM 125 flaps, about 14 inches wide each, and 2 feet 8 inches in length, of inch Honduras, hinged at the under side, as the design shews. The triangular legs which support it, are fixed in the centre, the same as a fishing stool, by means of an iron triangle, with three screw pins and nuts, as at A, to which is fixed a screw foot of iron at b. So that when the legs of the table are put to their place, at 1 , 2 , 3, where there are thin iron plates with holes in them, let in even with the table top, which receives the iron pins at the end of the legs, then by turning the screw footb round, it works in the nut o, and pressing the centre A further from o, the legs 1 , 2, 3, are contracted inwards, consequently the flaps are kept up, and secured to the legs at the same time. These tables are both simple, and will bear any degree of hardship. Camp chair, No. 7, plate 8, folds up, and the back, foot, and stump of the elbow, are hinged to the side rail, and the back, feet, and seat, are stayed with girth webbing, so that the whole will draw together, and lie flat. Some cover the seats with leather, but it is not so soon dry as webbing, which, therefore, is most ap proved of. There are other camp tables and chairs , but those now described, seem to me the best adapted to the purpose ofany that I have seen. The trussel camp table is framed together in the same way as we have described the seat of the camp chair to be, No. 7. The top is one entire piece, 30 inches long by 20 broad ; and being hinged at one side with swan neck hinges, as fig. 9, the top easily turns over upon the trussel, and may be fastened with a hook and eye. There are camp chairs made of mahogany, with the back framed to some simple pattern, but having the side rails so hinged as to admit the front to lay close to the back frame. The seats are formed of webbing, and when used, may have a cushion laid over it . For the 126 CAN officer's tent, and what relates to it, see TENT, and plate 78. CANE. See BAMBOO. Canes from Bengal, are sup posed the most beautiful which are brought into Europe ; some of which are so fine, that they may be worked into various useful vessels, which, when properly varnished and lacquered, will hold liquor as well as glass ; and are used in India instead of it. Caning cabinet work is now more in use than it was ever known to be at any former period. About 30 years since, it was gone quite out of fashion, partly owing to the imperfect manner in which it was executed. But on the revival of japanning furniture, it began to be brought gradually into use, and to a state of improve ment, so that at present it is introduced into several pieces offurniture, which it was not a few years past, as the ends of beds, framed in mahogany, and then caned, for the purpose of keeping in the bed clothes. Some times the bottoms of beds are caned. Small borders round the backs of mahogany parlour chairs, which look neat. Bed steps are caned : and any thing where lightness, elasticity, cleanness, and durability, ought to be combined. The quality of caning is various. The commonest kind is of one skain only, called by caners bead work, and runs open : others of it is of two skains, and is closer and firmer. The best work is termed bordering, and is of three skains, some of which is done very fine and close, with the skains less than a sixteenth broad, so that it is worked as fine, comparatively, as some canvass. The cane used for the best purposes , is of a fine light straw colour, and this, indeed, makes the most agreeable contrast to almost every colour it is joined with. The more yellow kind is generally as strong and durable CAN 127 but that which has lost either the white straw, or shining yellow colour, ought to be rejected, as having been damaged by salt water, or other accident, in its importation. CANOPY, in architecture and sculpture, a magnificent kind of decoration, serving to cover or crown any thing, as altars, thrones, tribunals, pulpits, chairs, or the like. This term has rather a curious derivation from xwww↓, a gnat ; whence tov, a net spread over a bedtokeep offthe gnats. Canopies, amongst us, are generally used as a covering or tester, for French or sofa beds : and are often of a spherical figure, or otherwise of a bell shape. They are certainly a handsome ornament to a bed, when they are executed in a tastety manner. The Roman grandees had their canopies, or spread veils, called thensa, over their chairs : the like were also in temples over the statues of the idols. CANTERBURY is the name of the metropolis of Kent ; but has of late years been applied to some pieces of cabinet work, because, as the story goes, the bishop of that see first gave orders for these pieces. One piece is a small music stand, with two or three hollow topped partitions, framed in light slips of mahogany, about three inches apart from each other, and about 8 inches deep, for holding music books. These have sometimes a small drawer, 3 inches deep, and the whole length of it, which is 18 inches; its width 12 inches, and the whole height 20 inches. The legs are made of 1 mahogany, turned or plain, tapered, with castors, and are adapted to run in under a piano-forte. The other piece which receives this epithet, is a supper tray, made to stand by a table at supper, with a circular end, and three par titions cross wise, to hold knives, forks, and plates, at that end, which is made circular on purpose. See plate 26, and TRAY, 128 CAR I · CAP, amongst cabinet-makers, is generally applied to a brass ornament which screws on bed pillars, by which the bed screw holes are covered. * Cap, is also used as a contraction of capital. CAPITAL, from the Latin caput, the head, is used on various occasions, to express the relation of a head, chief, or principal thing : thus, in architecture, it is the uppermost part of a column or pilaster, serving as the head or crowning, and placed immediately over the shaft, and under the entablature. The capital of a column is properly that whose plan is round: but the capital of a pilaster has its plan square or rectilenial. The capital of a column is an essential part of an order, and is varied according to the character of each. The ornamental capitals are, the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite ; and the plain, are the Tuscan and Doric ; which see under these articles. An angular capital, is a capital which bears the return of the entablature at the corner of a building. The capital of a balluster, is that part which crowns it : and the capital of a triglyph, is the plat-band over it, which Vitruvius calls tænia. See the upper fillet, plate 11 , No. 6. CARCASE, amongst joiners, is the external shell of a house, or the skeleton of the whole frame, including roof, partitions, floors, &c. before any part of it be lathed or plastered. The reason why this distinction is noticeable, is , that they sometimes take the carcase of a house at so much per square. Carcase, amongst cabinet-makers, generally applies to the rough cases of drawers or book cases, before they are veneered, or have any moulding upon them ; or in measuring the carcase, it signifies the dimensions of a piece of furniture without the projections of mouldings. CARD-TABLE. A piece of furniture oftener used than CAR 129 to good purpose. In the manufacturing of them, there is frequently much trouble to make them stand true in the upper top ; to effect which, various methods have been studied by cabinet makers. Some swell the up per tops, by damping them before they are veneered, supposing that the ground will shrink in due proportion with the veneer, so as to keep all straight. This, how ever, often fails, if the top imbibe much of the wet, for as it is so much thicker than the veneer, it takes longer time to dry it, and the veneer being dried first, and losing its power, the ground work will draw the top round on the upper side. On the other hand, if the ground be quite dry, and the wood of a soft nature, and care be not taken to shrink the veneer between hot cauls, previous to its being glued down, the top will most likely dish on the upper side. And it should be particularly noticed, that the top ought not to be left too long in the cauls, for that will help to draw it hollow. It is most adviseable for the workman to take the top soon out, and lay the veneer side of it down on the ground, that the underside being exposed to the air, may draw the No wood will stand so well for veneered side round. these tops, seasoned as hard, straight-grained mahogany, well , andjointed in 34 inch widths ; and to be careful notto have curled veneers, but well dried, to agree with theground work ; and being well sized with glue, it may be laid with the hammer with as much safety as in a caul, and sometimes more so ; because as soon as they are laid in this way , the under side may be turned up wards, and the veneered side placed so as to exclude the air from it. Of late , however , a thought has struck me , faulty or shaken veneers were cut into 3 feet thatif any lengths, and as many ofthem glued together as to be a proper thickness for the ground of a card table top, they afterwards may be cut down to 3 widths, and K 130 CAR 1 jointed again as solid wood. This thought entirely originates with myself, but I am strongly persuaded that it will answer; for as in this method the wood is glued two ways, so the spring of the grain must be cut off, and the whole rendered stiff by so many glueings. CARE, in painting, is represented by a grave comely woman she is winged, and holds two hour glasses ; a cock at her heels, and the sun rising from the ocean. Her handsomeness denotes her taking time by the fore lock, and stopping all things : her wings denote the quick ness of her thoughts in the exercise of care, or the swift ness oftime, which she is anxious about ; and the glasses and sun shew that care and solitude are never weary. CARICATURE, in painting, denotes the concealment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of blemishes, but still so as to preserve a resemblance ofthe object. CARMINE is a powder of a very beautiful red colour; or rather a fine bright crimson, inclining to a scarlet, when it is of a good quality. It being, in some degree, opaque, and in some transparent, it will work both in oil and water. There are various kinds of it prepared by the chemists, but that which is the deepest scarlet is best, for if it be pale, it is adulterated by some sort of white. It is esteemed the best crimson colour for stand ing in water. Portrait painters use a mixture of carmine and white flake, forthe lips and cheeks. It is one of the finishing colours, and should never be used in the first painting, but laid upon the finishing colours without mixing with any other. The very high price of it makes it sparingly used by painters, who instead of it use fine lake. CARNATION (colour) amongst painters, is understood of all the parts of a picture which represent flesh, or which are naked, and without drapery. The various colouring for carnations may be produced by taking CAR 131 more or less red, blue, yellow, or brown ochre, whether for the first colouring or for the finishing. The colour ing for women, should have a blue tinge ; for children, more red ; and for men, it should incline to a yellowish hue, and more so , if to represent an old person. CARPENTER. Some derive it from the Latin carpen tum , a car or cart, other from the French charpente, which denotes timber. Both these derivations may be included, and it will amount to this, that a carpenter is one who uses timber to make cars or carriages with. The term is applied to persons who build ships , par ticularly in country sea-port towns, where it is under stood of no other ; for those engaged inthe framing of roofs and floors , &c. are all termed joiners . In London there is another distinction between such as frame roofs and floors, from those who make doors, shutters, win dows, &c.—the former are carpenters, and the latter joiners . Carpenters' work which is measureable, are roofing, flooring, and partitioning, which are measured by the square containsof 10 feet long, and 10 broad, so that one square 100 square feet. Therefore if a floor be 30 feet long, by20 broad, these being multiplied together, the product will be 600 feet, or six squares, and so of any quantity; for by cutting off two figures to the other right of the product , the left are the squares , and the light the feet . Thus if a room or flooring be fect. in.* 50 35 250 150 6 long, by 8 broad. 33 4 16 8 1800 0 content 18 squares, 132 CAR Thejoiners' work is more by the run measure of so many feet in length only, as cornices, doors, and cases, window frames, gutterings, &c . For the various prices of the above work, see the Builder's Price Book, published by J. Taylor, Holborn. CARPET. A sort ofcovering of stuff, or other materials, wrought with a needle on a loom. Carpets of various manufactories, have been a leading article of a well furnished house, for some years past. I cannot, from present information, find the æra in which carpeting was first invented : but from some cita tions of Shakespear, they seem to have been in use at that time. The Persian and Turkey carpets, are those most esteemed. The Parisian carpets are a tolerable imita tion of these. But besides the Persian, Turkey, and Parisian carpets, there are the following sorts, which have their names from the places where they are manu factured ; as Brussels carpet, the metropolis of the dukedom of Brabant. Kidderminster-a town in Worcestershire. Wilton-a town in Wiltshire, Axbridge-in Somersetshire. Venetian carpet, generally striped. And Scots carpet, which is one of the most inferior kind. To most of the best kind of carpets, there are suitable borders in narrow widths. The stair carpets are, half yard, half ell , and three quarters wide. In cutting out carpets, the upholsterers clear the room of all the furniture, and having caused it to be dusted out, they proceed to line out the border with a chalk. line, and marking the mitres correctly in the angles of the room, and, round the fire-place in particular, as in CAR 133 this part any defects are most noticeable. They then proceed to cut the mitres of the carpet border, beginning at the fire-place, and endeavouring, as correctly as possible, to match the pattern at each mitre : and in order to do this, they must sometimes cut more or less of the border to waste. In this manner they proceed, tacking it down, in a temporary manner, as they go on. They then take a length of the body carpet, and tacking it up to the border at one end, they take the strainer, and draw it to the other, and tack it again, taking care, as they go on, to match the pattern, which sometimes varies in the whole length, for which there is no remedy, but by changing the lengths in such a manner as to bring them tolerably near in matching. Lastly, if the widths do not answer in number, it then becomes necessary to draw them in at that side of the room where it is least seen ; and this must be done so as to make the contracted widths match, that there may be nothing offensive in the appearance of the whole. That they may not misplace any of the lengths or parts of the border, they where they take sealing thread, and tack them together, think it necessary, in which state they are takento the shop and completed. of the room Ifacarpet be cut out at home , a plan must be acurately taken on paper , with all the sizes of breaks , door ways , and windows , & c. which must be transferred to some convenient room at home , by a chalk line andsquare , and then marking off the border , and proceeding as before described. In laying down a carpet , they generally begin with the fire-place first , and having tacked and secured this , they strain here and there , so as to bring it gradually too, till they get the whole strained close round the room. Every person employed in taking the plan of a room 134 CAR · for a carpet, ought to know as much of plain geometry as to enable him to raise a perpendicular at the end of any given line ; and to know that an angle of 45 degrees is a true mitre line ; to draw an equilateral triangle, and knowthat any side of it is equal to the side of a hexagon inscribed in a circle, whose radii or semi-diameter, is equal to the side of the triangle ; that when there are bow windows in any room, how to find the true curve of the arch, whether circular or elliptical. For which see GEOMETRY. CARTOON. A design in painting, made on strong paper, to be transferred on a fresh plastered wall, to be painted in Fresco. This is performed by calking. See CALKING. It is also used for a design coloured, for working in mosaic tapestry. The word is from the Italian cartoni, a large paper, denoting many sheets of paper pasted on canvas, on which large designs are made, whether coloured or with chalks only. CARTOUCHE, in architecture and sculpture, an orna ment representing a scrole of paper. It is usually a flat member with wavings, to represent some inscription, device, cipher, or ornament of armoury. These are in architecture much the same as medallions. In a more general sense, it is any piece of carved work whose use is to receive a motto or inscription . CARVER. A cutter of wood in the form of figures, or other devices, in ornaments and enrichments of mould ings. This ingenious art, appears to be of great an tiquity. It seems to be prior to statuary and painting. " And the cedar of the house within was carved with knobs, and open flowers : all was cedar, there was no stone seen. " 1 Kings vi. 18. Nor do we read of any painting ; for in this sacred edifice , the carving was overlaid with gold. So that carving and gilding are not 1 1 1 CAR 135 " only of the most ancient, but the most honourable origin. We have already considered the foundation of this art under the article BOASTING, which see. But under the notion of a carver, both boasting and finishing are included. An adept in carving, is no mean person ; and in reality requires more to qualify him thoroughly, than is generally apprehended ; although many in this profession, as in all others, content themselves to know verylittle . A complete master in carving, ought to be acquainted with architecture, perspective, and, in some degree, with botany ; nor should he be ignorant of the true effect of painting, nor of the structure of the human body ; for, unquestionably, each of these sciences have something to do with carving. To these should be added an acquaintance with the antique ornaments . These, indeed, he is principally concerned with in many branches of carving ; and by a competent acquaintance with which, it is, that the French carvers exceed the English, when they have practised in this country for sometime. Figures, foliage, and flowers, are the three great subjects of carving ; which, in the finishing, require a strength these or delicacy suited to the height or distance of objects from the eye. In the proper effect of carving, much depends on a due degree of boldness, or tenderness, answering to local circumstances. It re quires some command of the mind, for the carver to work so as to suit considerable height or distance ; in which case, his eye, in working at so short a distance, must not govern him, which it is apt to do ; but his judgment must take the lead, and constantly suggest to him the folly of finishing, in a tender manner, those flowers, and foliage, &c. which are only to be viewed at a distance. The style of carving, at this time, is much after the antiques, which is doubtless the most commendable. 136 CAR Yet some of the lighter branches of carving, are greatly affected bythe present introduction of so many species of brass lights from France. There are, strictly speaking, four classes of carvers . 1st. One for architectural work, consisting of the ornamental capitals of the orders, chimney pieces, and mouldings. 2d. One for internal decorations in fur niture, consisting of pier glasses, window and bed cor nices, &c. connected with gilding in burnished gold and mat. 3d. One for chair work, consisting of flat water, and strap leaf work, scrolls, and running mould ing, whether for japanning or gilding, applied to chairs, sophas, couches, &c. 4th. One for ship work, con sisting much in massy figures for the heads, and bold foliage for the quarters and sterns of ships. Yet there are to be found persons, though rarely, of such universal genius in this ingenious art, who are capable of under taking the four branches. Having possessed a strong at tachment and inclination for carving, in my youth, I was necessarily induced to make attempts in this art, and on succeeding in some degree, I was employed in the country occasionally in it, and therefore, from some experience, I make some remarks on the practice. 1st. That the work should be glued down by paper, and afterwards boasted, (see BOASTING ) by which the general relief of the whole is produced. Then 2dly. It should be taken off, and cleared behind of superfluous wood, and again glued down with paper in a very slight manner ; that being finished, it may easily be taken off without injury. 3dly. That in the general style of finishing, to study nature, whether animate or inanimate, by which it will be observed, that all niggling and chopping into small parts, must be avoided, except in a few particular parts. 4thly. That the outline is the prin cipal feature of good carving ; and that on all occasions, atSt CAR 137 every other thing must, if necessary, be sacrificed for its preservation, particularly in bold works. Hence ; in the carving ofmoulding, the outline, profile, or con tour, must not be destroyed by the relief of the carving, which ought to be so studied as to agree with it. Lastly, To preserve breadth in carving, as it is done in good painting ; and not to muscularize nor fibrate too much, nor yet to leave the foliage bare, nor the figures like a stuffed sack. CARYATIDES. Besides columns and pilasters, it is some times customary to employ representations of human figures, by which to support entablatures in buildings. The male figures are called Persians, and the female Caryatides or Carians. In The Persians are so called from a victory gained over the Persians by Pausanias, who having brought home spoils and trophies to the Athenians, they fixed upon Persianfigures for those which should support entabla tures, andthus kept in mind, that there were once Persian slavesin Athens. To represent these conquered people in the lowest state possible, they loaded them with the heaviest entablature, that is of the Doric order. process oftime, however, other figures besides those of Persians, were introduced, and other entablatures put overthem, but the name was still retained. The proper Caryatides, are women dressed in long robes, after the Asiatic manner ; and the crigin of the device was as follows. The Carians had been long at war with the Athenians, but being at length totally vanquished, their wives were led away captives ; and to perpetuate the of this event, trophies were erected, in which figures of women dressed in the the Caryatic manner, were used to support entablatures like the Persians : and the other female figures were afterwards used in the same manner ; the name of Caryatides was always retained. memory 138 CAS The ancients made frequent use of Persians and Carya tides, and took pleasure in varying their forms in numer ous ways, There are some instances of these in modern architecture, but they ought not to be introduced except under cautious rules . Hence all indecent atti tudes, distorted features, and monsterous productions, ought to be avoided, of which there are many examples in Gothic buildings. On the contrary, the attitudes. should be simple and graceful, the countenance always pleasing, though varied, and strongly marked, agreeable to the nature ofthe object represented. The Caryatides, or female figures, should never much exceed the human. size : but the Persians, or male figures, may be of any size, and the larger the more striking to the view, as they are intended to surprize and command awe. They are used with propriety in arsenals, galleries of armour, and

such like buildings, but in nothing where delicacy is

required. Their entablature ought to be the Doric, and bear the same proportion to the figures as they would to - columns of the same height. The Caryatides should have their entablature of the Ionic or Corinthian order, bearing a like proportion to these as their columns would require. CASING, amongst plaisterers, is the laying on mortar over the frame of a building, or any timber work, which, whilst the plaister is wet, they joint by a ruler, that it may have the appearance of stone. CASTER. Of this useful article in brass work, there are a great variety, generally distinguished by the following names : Plate casters, which screw on to the end of any leg. Square and round socket casters, from about half an inch to an inch and half, or more, at times . Claw casters, whose sockets are square, but fixed on to the wheel in an horizontal position, for pillar and claw CAT 139 tables. Casters for bed pillars are of four or five sorts. 1st. Two and three wheel plate iron casters, and the same in brass, excepting the plate that screws on, which is always iron. These casters require the bed pillar to be turned hollow at the bottom, like a box, to receive the plate and wheel of the caster, that it may only rise about half an inch above the bottom of the pillar to which they are screwed, except the bottom be plinthed after the most common method, by mitring a torus round, which is then put low enough to receive the caster. 24. Square socket casters, about 23 inches at the top, tapering to suit the therm ofthe pillar on to which they are let and screwed to, the same as a table caster. 3d. The common box wood casters, of two sizes, the smallest for field bedsteads, and the largest for common beech four-post bedsteads. 4th. Large French casters, for the largest and best beds, the wheel of which is fixed to a bar of iron , which is made with transverse straps at each end, by which the caster is screwed to the under side of the rails of the bed. Lastly, there is a caster lately introduced, which seems to have nothing in it objectionable but the appearance of the bottom, which must be round, though the socket be square. In any other respect, it seems to possess some advantages, par ticularly in strength , as the wheel is nearly perpendicular to the socket, and is supported by a small roller, which runs round with it. These casters will therefore be proper for heavy furniture, such as field beds, or large library and dining tables , with tapered legs , &c. CATHETUS-In geometry and architecture. In geome try, it is a line or radius falling perpendicularly upon another line or surface ; thus the cathetus of a right angled triangle, are the two sides that include the triangle. In architecture, it is a line drawn from the under side of the cymatium of the Ionic capital, to the centre of the 140 CED The length of the cathetus is 15 See VOLUTE. eye of the volute. minutes. CAVITO. The word is Italian, and signifies the same as hollow. In architecture, a concave moulding con taining a quadrant of a circle. CAUL, in anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen or belly, covering the greatest part of the guts ; sometimes called reticulum, because of its resemblance to a net spread over any thing. From this term is derived caul amongst cabinet makers, which is used to lay down. veneers with. The caul is made out of solid wood, shaped to the surface to be veneered, and being well heated, and afterwards oiled or greased, it is screwed to the veneer, and by its heat sends out the glue, so that the veneer lies close to the ground, Sometimes thin wainscot is used for cauls, and by heat made to bend to a crooked surface. In general, cauls of 1 inch deal, sloted through at each end with quarter wainscot are used for card table tops : but it may be doubted whether it is always the best method. CAULICOLES, in architecture, are eight small branches or stalks, which rise under the volutes of the Corinthian capital ; which see at a a, plate 34. CEDAR, or JUNIPER. The character of this tree is a genus of the order of monodelphia of the dioceia, or 23d class of plants. According to the Linnæan system, there are nine species of the cedar tree. The first and second species are natives of Spain ; the third of France and Siberia ; the fourth and fifth in South America ; the sixth in Italy-Mounts Olympus and Ararat ; the seventh in Virginia and Carolina ; the 8th is a low shrub that grows wild in the north of Europe ; and the ninth grows naturally in the southern parts of it. The South American cedars grow to a very large size in their native country, some of them to the height of 80 feet or upwards, but are too tender to live in the open air of 1 CEI 141 this country. Perhaps this species was the cedrus magna ofthe ancients, or the great cedar ; and probably that of mount, Lebanon, mentioned in scripture, and chiefly used in the temple of Solomon. The cedar which is used by cabinet makers, is imported, in general, from the West India islands, and is of an agreeable smell ; but seldom comes to us in trees larger than a foot in diameter. There is a common kind of cedar, in colour much like dark mahogany. This we suppose to be of the first and second species, which grows in Spain ; for their ships of war are sometimes made of it. The smell of this wood is rather offensive ; but it does very well for the bottoms and backs of common drawer work, particularly for bottoms, as it comes cheap, and often broad enough to do without jointing. Some call this Havannah cedar, from a West India island ofthat name, where, probably, some of it may grow. See PINUS. CEILING, in architecture, the top or roof of a room ; or a covering of plaster over laths nailed on the bottom of joists, that bear the floor of the upper room ; or on mere ceiling joists where there is no room above. Plastered ceilings are supposed to be more common in Britain than in other countries. The manner of finish ing ceilings has been various, at different times, in this country. A sort of very heavy ornamented plaster work, was formerly introduced, together with pannelled work, in heavy mouldings. Within about 30 years since, this kind of ceiling work has been composed in a much lighter style , and variegated with painted pannels, often from the Heathen mythology, or other poetical subjects. At present some of the most elegant rooms have no plastered ornaments in their ceilings, but are painted to imitate an open sky, with some faint scatter ings ofclouds. 142 CEM CELLARET, amongst cabinet makers, denotes a con venience for wine, or a wine cistern. A cellaret side board, denotes that it has a place at one end, in which to hold bottles of wine, and at the other sometimes a plain drawer for plate, and sometimes lined with lead, to wash glasses in. The cellaret drawer, ought not to be less than 13 inches deep, in the clear inside measure. They are usually made to hold nine bottles, and some times 12, in extraordinary large sideboard tables. The best cellaret drawers are made with an inside case to rise out of the drawer, in which are the par titions for the bottles of wine. These partitions are best made of tough thin wainscot, and half lapped together, of stuff about 3½ inches wide, and being fit into the case, they are not finally fixed till they return from the tinman, whose business it is to lead both these. The bottom and the sides of the inner case, are leaded a little higher up than the partitions. Observe, when the inner case is put into the cellaret drawer, to lift it out by, there is a square piece cut out of the drawer side, dove-tail wise, which being glued unto the sides of the inner case, serve to raise it out. But that the fingers may come at it, the sides of the drawer are scooped out by a gouge, under the edge of these thumb pieces. CEMENT, in a general sense, is any glutinous substance capable of uniting and keeping things together in close cohesion. In this sense the word comprehends mortar, solder, glue, &c. but has been generally restrained to the composition used for holding together broken glass, china, and earthen ware. For this purpose, the juice of garlic is recommended as proper ; but should be in cases where not much strength, but neatness is required, as it leaves no mark. But the following cements are prefer able, and, in general, may be depended upon for strength. CEM 143 • Quick lime and the white of an egg, mixed together, and expeditiously used, will answer. Some recommend a mixture of quick lime and cheese. The cheese must be shaved thin, and stirred with boiling water, which is. thereby changed into a tenacious slime, which does not mingle with the water. This slime being laid upon a hot stone, and mixed with a proper quantity of quick lime, into the consistence of paste. This composition dries in two or three days, and will resist water. -Some use white lead, red lead, quick lime, and green sandarach, of each half an ounce, and mix all these with the glare. offour eggs. Cement used amongst builders, is of two kinds, hot and cold. The hot cement is made of rosin, bees' wax, brick dust, and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be cemented, are first heated, and then the cement is poured on, and the bricks rubbed against each other, the same as a joiner or cabinet maker rubs his glued joints of wood. The cold cement is that which was before described ; but the hot is most generally used. Cement, amongst cabinet makers, is a composition of bees wax, black rosin, red lead, Venetian red, a little yellow ochre, and Spanish brown, to imitate the colour of mahogany with, and by which to fill up any small hole. But I recommend a much preferable cement, where great nicety is required, which is as follows ; take red lead or Venetian red, Spanish brown, a little lake and yellow, so as to match the mahogany, which grind upon a stone with spirits of turpentine, very stiff, as thick as paste ; then take as much turpentine varnish as will barely soften it, when it will become more fluid , which if it exceed in degree, may be easily remedied, by letting it lay on the stone till it dry to the consistence of putty, at which time it must be applied to the hole to be cemented, otherwise it will turn too hard for use, and 144 CEN must be softened again. This cement, after standing a day or two, will bear a polish with the wood. If, how ever, it should be required to dry quicker, along with the turpentine varnish add a small quantity of white spirit varnish, or melt a little black rosin into the turpentine varnish. In this way, any coloured cement may be made, that will infallibly answer the purpose, if duly mixed. CENTAURS, in mythology, a kind of fabulous monsters, half men, and half horses. CENTRE, or CENTER, is a point equally distant from the extremities of a line, figure, or body. It is formed from the Greek word xvτpov, a point. The centre of a circle is that point from which lines being drawn to the circumference, are equal. Centre of a parallelogram, or poligonal figure, is the point wherein its diagonals intersect. In an ellipsis, the intersection of the transverse and conjugate diameter, is its centre. Centre, in a mechanical sense, is a point within a body, through which, if a plane pass, the segment on each side will equiponderate ; that is, neither of them can move the other. Centre, in perspective, is a point in the picture pro duced by a line drawn perpendicular to the eye, and intersecting the plane of the picture. In plate 1 , fig. 5, s is the centre of the perspective plane, and all lines which originally are perpendicular to it, vanish into s , the centre of the picture. Thus the lines 1 , 3, 2, 0, being perpendicular to the ground line or the inter section of the plane of the picture, with the ground plane, which in effect is the same, the lines 1, 3, 2, 0, vanish into s, the centre ; which is further illustrated in the small treatise of perspective, under the article PER SPECTIVE . CHA 145 11 ed es 11 d 1 1 " 1 CENTRAL. For central, centrifugal, and centripetal forces, see MECHANICS. CHAIR. From the Greek xapa, cathedra, anciently seat, a chair, a desk, a pulpit to declaim in, or read lec tures out of. It is still applied to the place whence professors and regents in universities, deliver their lectures ; thus we say, the professor's chair, the doctor's chair. The word was applied to an ivory seat placed on a car, wherein were seated the prime magistrates of Rome, and those to whom the honour of a triumph had been granted. From this term cathedra, comes our cathedral churches, being the sees or seats ofbishops. The term chair applies to all the variety of seats used for domestic purposes, and obtain names answering to their appropriate design, whether for furnishing par ticular rooms, or for our accommodation in cases of ease or convenience. Hence we have a variety of arm chairs for ease, see plate 8 ; and for particular rooms, as drawing room chairs, parlour chairs, lodging room or bed room chairs, child's chair, hall chairs, porter's chairs, kitchen chairs, and sick-bed chairs ; which see under these articles. Chair-making is a branch generally confined to itself; as those who professedly work at it, seldom engage to make cabinet furniture. In the country manufactories it is otherwise ; yet even these pay some regard to keep ing their workmen constantly at the chair, or to the cabinet work. The two branches seem evidently to require different talents in workmen, in order to be come proficients. In the chair branch it requires a particular turn in the handling of shapes, to make them agreeable and easy : and the only branch of drawing adapted to assist such, is that of ornaments in general. L " 146 CHA 1 It is very remarkable, the difference of some chairs of precisely the same pattern, when executed by different chair makers, arising chiefly in the want of taste con cerning the beauty of an outline, of which we judge by the eye, more than the rigid rules of geometry. Draw ing, in perspective, seems more proper for those who keep to the cabinet branch, which enables them more accurately to judge of a sketch given them to work by, and of the effect of the whole. A good cabinet maker is distinguishable by the neatness of his lines , cross banding, and drawer work. In both, one sure sign of a bad workman, is the ill condition in which his tools are in. 1 The kinds of mahogany employed in chair making, ought to be Spanish or Cuba, of a clean straight grain. Wood of this quality will rub bright, and keep cleaner than any Honduras wood. Yet there is wood of the last quality, if properly selected for chair making, to which there can be no material objection ; and where lightness is preferred, as is sometimes the case, it will demand the preference. It appears from some of the latest specimens of French chairs, some of which we have been favoured with a view of, that they follow the antique taste, and introduce into their arms and legs, various heads of animals ; and that mahogany is the chief wood used in their best chairs, into which they bring in portions of ornamental brass ; and, in my opinion, not without a proper effect, when due restraint is laid on the quantity. CHAMBER, in building, from the Greek xapapa, vault or curve ; the term chamber being originally confined to places arched over, though now it is used indefinitely for rooms with either arched or straight ceilings. See further particulars under ROOM. CHANCEL, from cancelli, lattices or cross bars, where CHE 147 with the chancels were anciently encompassed, as they now are with rails . The chancel is that part of the choir of a church, between the altar or commu: ion table, and the ballustrade or rail that incloses it, where the minister is placed at the celebration of the Lord's Supper. CHANNEL, in architecture, is used to denote that part of the Ionic capital which lies under the abacus, and continues to the eye of the volute, Channel of the triglyph, in the Doric order, is in width equal to two-twelfths of the whole triglyph, and its depth is half the width ; the sides of the channels do therefore incline to each other in an angle of 45°. See TRIGLYPH, in plate 11 , No. 6. CHARITY is represented, in painting, by a woman all in red, a flame on the crown of her head, with an infant sucking on her left arm, and two others standing up, one of which is embraced with the right. The red and flame denote the fervency of charity, and its activity ; the three children shew the triple power of charity ; forfaith and hope, without charity, will signify nothing. CHASTITY is represented, in painting, by a modest faced female, holding a whip for self chastisement. She is clothed in white raiment, and on her girdle is written , castigo corpus meum, I chastise my body. At her feet lies a conquered cupid with his broken bow. CHESNUT-TREE. Linnæus reckons two species ofthis plant. 1st. Esculus, with seven stamina in the flower, or the common horse chesnut. The 2d, with eight stamina in the flower, or the scarlet horse chesnut. The com mon horse chesnut is a native of Asia, and was formerly The in great esteem , being usually planted in avenues . scarlet horse chesnut grows naturally in Carolina and the Brazils. The common chesnut bears a pleasant flower. In France it is used much as an ornamental 148 CHI tree in their walks ; and was brought into Europe from Turkey, and has been raised from nuts brought from thence, which grow well with us, and in time to large trees, full of boughs and branches, green leaved, and streaked on the edges, with threads in the middle, which, in their native soil, turn to chesnuts, but rarely do so with us. In Turkey, the horses are sometimes fed with the nuts as a remedy for certain disorders, particularly for such as have coughs, or are broken winded ; hence the epithet horse chesnut. This tree is reckoned a good fence for other trees, against the effects of blasting weather, as it repels it in some degree; and will therefore keep plantations from the injuries of the severest frosts. Its branches spread wide, and form a pleasant shelter ; but it seems to have some disagreeable influence on grass, as no cattle will feed under it. It has been formerly much used amongst joiners and carpenters ; and it is said, that some of the most ancient houses in London were built with it. CHIMNEY, " in architecture, a particular part of a house where the fire is made, having a tube or funnel to carry off the smoke. The word chimney comes from the French cheminée, and that from the Latin caminata, a chamber wherein is a chimney : caminata from caminus, and that from the Greek xavos, a chimney; ofxaw, I burn." Brit. Encyclop. It is the opinion of some architects, that the general reason why chimnies smoke, is their being built too wide at bottom, so that when there is any considerable pressure of air, or gusts of wind downwards, there being nothing to resist it, the room is consequently filled with smoke. The observation is grounded upon the following principle, i. e. that the rarefied air, by the heat of the fire being forced up the chimney by the + CHI 149 בי 240 VC pressure of the condensed air, the smoke ascends, but gradually weakens as it goes up ; and if so, it is self evident, that to prevent smoking, the funnel should not be too long, and rather narrower at the bottom than the top, so that after rising past the narrow part by the force of the air it may be free in its passage as it ascends. And bythe chimney being thus gathered in alittle above. the fire place, it seems probable that the smoke requires additional spring or power to rise. The publishers of the British Encyclopædia say, that this method of building chimnies has proved effectual , after all others have failed ; and that in a house placed in the worst situation possibly, namely, under a high mountain to the southward, from which strong blasts blow down upon it. In this situation a vent was carried up without angles, as perpendicular as possible, and was made about 3 or 4 inches wider at top than at the bottom ; the funnel was gathered in a throat directly above the fire place, and so widening upwards. Since that time the house has not only ceased to smoke, but, when the doors are open, the draught is so strong, that it will carry a piece of paper out at the chimney head. CHIMNEY GLASS . This is a piece of household em bellishment that has of late years been much in requisi tion ; and certainly they are a pleasing ornament to elegant rooms. They are generally measured to take in the whole of the opening of the chimney, between the pilasters ofthe jambs, so that the pilaster of the chimney glass may come as near as possible in a line with them. It always looks the neatest to bring the plate as near to the marble cap as can be admitted of ; and for this purpose a narrow slip only is screwed on to the blind frame, which a glass of a large size must always have, other wise it will be in an unsafe state. To this narrow slip, a gilt moulding is fixed by means of gilt screws, or 150 CIN needle points : but in some instances, the plate is in contact with the marble cap, which, by reflection, ap pears twice the width . In elegant rooms, the chimney glass is usually carried to the under side of the cornice of the ceiling ; but to reduce the expence of the plate, sometimes a broadish pannel is introduced at the top of the glass, with a frieze and cornice above all, included in the frame of the glass -see plate 50. The most generally approved pilasters for chimney and pier glasses, are those of 3, 5 , or 7 reeds, worked bold; but which, in my opinion, still look better by being parted with a ground one-third of the width of the reed, which may be matted to relieve the burnished reeds. It is not unusual to have a twisting branch of flowers, or a ribband round the reeds rising upwards, and terminating in some sort of Composite, Corinthian, or Ionic capital. The pannel above the glass, is some times made quite plain, and covered with silk as a ground for drapery, tacked under the cornice of the glass , to match that of the windows. For other particulars respecting glass, and glass fixing , see the article GLASS. CHISSEL. An instrument much in use amongst cabinet makers, joiners, and stone masons. The general names of which are the following ; forming chissel, paring chissel, mortise chissel, ripping chissel, skue chissel, blunt chissel, for breaking walls, and various iron chissels for stone and sculpture work. Observe, for all stone and sculpture chissels , the steel should be in the centre, as also in the skue sort, used for carving, but all the others have their steel on the front side. CHORD, in geometry, is a right line drawn from one part of an arch ofa circle to another : hence the chord of an arch is a line drawn to its extremity, as 1 , 2, in fig. 7, plate 1 . CINCTURE, in architecture, a ring or list at the top 14 CLA 151 2 1 she d an ard el Coo and bottom of the shaft of a column, separating the shaft at one end from the base, and at the other from the capital. See COLUMN and APOPHYGE. CIRCLE, in geometry, a plain figure bounded by one line, called the circumference, unto which all lines drawn from the centre are of equal length . See GEOMETRY. CIRCUS. A large building, either round or oval, anciently used for exhibitions to the people. The Roman circus was a large place or square, arched at one end, encompassed with porticos, and furnished with rows of seats ascending over each other. This term is applied to modern buildings, when the plan of the street or pile of houses is circular. CISTERN. See CELLARET. CITRON TREE. An American tree, the wood of which is called by the natives candle wood; because being cut into splinters, it burns like a candle. The tree is frequent in the Leeward islands , and grows to a considerable size ; the leaves are like those of the bay tree, but of a finer green : the flower is sweet, and much like those of the orange. The trunk is so like the yellow saunders in colour, that it was taken to be the same tree ; but after being imported, the difference was discovered ; the saunders being of a sweet scent, and but moderately heavy, and resinous ; but the citron wood considerably heavy, very oily, and of a strong smell. It is adapted for turnery wood, being hard, and a beautiful brown by age. CLAMP, in cabinet making and joinery, a slip or scant ling of wood tenoned or ploughed on to the ends of table tops, or sliders in drawers, or on the ends of doors. In circular doors for commodes, &c . about 2 feet in length, or more, to be veneered, the clamps. are usually jointed square on to the end, and glued, and 152 CLI afterwards doueled or pinned. In some cases it is not easy to determine when clamping will answer a good purpose, as it sometimes does injury ; frequently so in card table tops, for if the wood shrink, they are sure to put the top in winding, and if so, it can never return to a true state . Clamping is useful in small upright doors, where the air surrounds them pretty equal on both sides, being not confined, and when there is no great draught of veneer, so that the clamps may always have the ballancing power; but in all cases of horizontal work, where the air is confined to the upperside, and there is a great width of veneer to draw, then it is improper to depend on clamping. In such circumstances, the only security is a dry ground of hard wood, and a judicious tempering ofthe veneer to suit it. CLARO-OBSCURO, or CLAIR OBSCURE, in painting, is the art of distributing to advantage the lights and shadows of a piece, relative both to the relief of the eye, and the effect of the whole piece. Thus, when a painter gives his figures a strong relievo, and frees them from the ground, and from each other, by the manage ment of light and shade, he may be said to understand the clair obscure. See more on this subject in painting. Clair obscure is also used to signify a design consist ing only of two colours, usually of black and white ; or it is a design washed only with one colour, the shadows being of a dusky brown colour, and the lights heightened with white. The word clair is taken for those parts of a picture which reflect the most light, and comprehends the luminous colours . By obscure is meant not only all its shades, but also all the colours that are dusky. CLIO. One of the muses, supposed to be the inventress of history. In painting she is represented with a coronet COL 153 ofbays, holding in her right hand a trumpet, in her left hand a book, upon which may be written Historia. COLLARINO. The neck of the capital, being 10 minutes in height, both in the Tuscan and in the Doric, which are the only columns which have the collarino. COLONNADE. A peristile of a circular figure, or a series of columns disposed in a circle. A polystyle colonnade, is that whose number of columns is too great to be taken in by the eye at a single view. COLOUR, philosophically defined, is not inherent in bodies, but is generated in the faculty of sight, by means of direct or reflected light, and by the disposition of surfaces and substances to reflect or refract those rays of light to our eye, by which we have the power of per ceiving objects in such a mode as we pronounce them to be, of a red, yellow, or any other colour. If this definition be accurate, all sensation of colours depends on light, the modification of matter, the state and structure of the eye hence, if the eye be affected with the jaundice, every object will appear to be tinged with more or less yellow and if the object be composed in a figure of various surfaces, those which present them selves most perpendicularly to the sun's rays, will be lightest ; and those most remote, or hid from them, will approach to darkness or blackness : but withdraw all light, and we immediately lose all perception of colour, and are only sensible of its privation, which is darkness. To me, therefore, it appears conclusive, that colour is not a property in matter, but only a power, and that the agents of such power are the eye, the light, and the various modifications of the par ticles of matter of which all bodies are composed. On this subject we have most elegantly exprest the opinion of Dr. Youngin the followinglines : 154 COL " The senses, which inherit earth and heaven, Enjoy the various riches nature yields : Far nobler ! give the riches they enjoy, Give taste to fruits ; and harmony to groves. The radiant beams to gold, and gold's bright sire, Take in, at once, the landscape of the world At a small inlet, which a grain might close, And halfcreate the wond'rous world they sec. But for the magic organ's powerful charm, Earth were a rude, uncoloured, chaos still. -Objects are but th ' occasion : ours th ' exploit. Ours are the cloth, the pencil, and the paint, Which Nature's admirable picture draws ; And beauty creation's ample dome. Like Milton's Eve, when gazing on the lake, Man makes the matchless image, man admires." • In confirmatiom of this opinion, it may be observed , that if we artfully vary the medium through which we see it, and we may make the surface of any body what ever, assume, in appearance, any colour we please ; and that in the most rapid succession, and in every mode of possible diversity -a certain sign that colour is only a sensible quality, and not a real property of matter. For those substances which are disposed to reflect the original colours, and which are used in painting, we refer to the term PAINTING. COLUMN, in architecture, is the principal part of the whole order of any building. A complete column con tains three principal parts, i.e. the pedestal, shaft, or body, and the entablature. Again, each of these are also sub divided into three, which will make nine smaller parts, which are again divided into the several members or mould ings of which the entire order is composed. Thus in the Tuscan column, plate 30, the whole height is to be divided into five equal parts, one of which is for the pedestal ; see the scale 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, on the extremity of COL 155 the right side of the plate. Again , the remaining four parts are to be divided into five equal parts, one of which is for the entablature, and the remaining four for the body of the column, including base and capital ; see the second scale. Lastly, the four parts are then to be divided into seven equal parts, one of which is for the lower or inferior diameter ; see the third scale. The module, or largest diameter of the column, must then be divided into six equal parts, as shewn in the plate, each of which is again divided into 10, making in the whole 60 minutes, by which to proportion the respective members of each larger part. By this scale it is evident, that any part from 1 to 60, may be taken, or even a half part, by placing the compass in the middle between any two lines. For observe, that the diagonal lines from 5 divide the sixth part of the module into 10 equal parts ; and if 12 be wanted, it is only to place the compass foot on the third line from the bottom or line 8, and extending it from the upright line 20, to the diagonal line ; and if 12 are wanted, the compass, must, in the same manner, be applied between the lines 7 and 8 : and so of any other. In proceeding to draw the Tuscan column geometri cally, raise a perpendicular line for the centre, and, as we noticed before, of the pedestal consisting of three parts ; begin with its plinth, for the height of which take from the module 32 minutes, see fig. 2, and lay them upon the perpendicular line. In the same manner must all the numbers be placed as marked on the plate ; only observe, that the number for the heights are read perpendicularly, and for the projections horizontally. Next lay on 11 minutes for the base, including an ogee, and 2 fillets of 2 minutes each, and the ogee 7 minutes. The second part of the pedestal is the dado or die, for which lay on 71. The third part is the cornice, for 156 COL which is to be laid on 16 minutes, to be sub-divided as expressed by the figures ; 5 for the cima reversa , 84 for the corona, and 24 for the fillet, which completes the pedestal, which in all contains 131 minutes, or a fraction more than the fifth of the whole height. Next proceed with the column, which includes, 1st. A base, which is 30 minutes. 2d. The shaft, which is six diameters. 3d. The capital, which is 30 minutes ; so that the whole column contains 420 minutes. Lastly, proceed with the entablature, which contains three parts. 1st. The architrave, which is 30 minutes. 2d. The frieze, 30 minutes . And 3d. The cornice, 45 minutes, which make 105 ; and by adding the minutes ofthe Pedestal The column The entablature · - - · · 131 420 105 the entire Tuscan order contains 656 minutes in height. To draw the projections of the orders . From the perpendicular line, place on 30 minutes cach way, for the lower diameter, and for the upper one 25 each way, so that the shaft will diminish 10 minutes. From the perpendicular lines which determine these diameters, are placed all the projections of the members, except those of the pedestal, which are laid on from the line of the die or dado, projecting 10 minutes on each side more than the column, which makes the dado in width. 80 minutes, being 10 more than its height. And observe, that the plinth of the base is in a line with the dado, which includes the projection of the base. The projection of the pedestal cornice is 11 minutes, and the lowest plinth the same. COL 157 1 B 5. es. ce, the 5 C } 1 5, For the projections of the capital and entablature, see the large profile on the left, where the heights are also placed, which will be easily understood after what hath been said on the other parts. It may, however, be ne cessary to notice, that the cornice projects equal with its height, 45 minutes, and the height of the capital 30, exclusive ofthe sincture and astragal below the collarino. Observe, the collarino, or neck of the capital , is 10 minutes in all the orders. To diminish the shaft of the column, divide the shaft into three equal parts, and take two of these, and divide them into four equal parts, as shewn at figure A. Turn an arch at 1 , 2, 3, 4, equal to the lower diameter. Take 25 minutes, or half of the upper diameter, and place it at 1 , and divide 1 , 4, into four equal parts, through which draw parallel lines, as the figure shews. Take No 1, and place it at diameter 1 ; and take No. 2, and place it at diameter 2 ; and so of the No. 3, which give the diminution, by tracing through each point, by means of a flexible ruler that will bend to each point : but in a large work, the two-thirds of the shaft might be divided into eight equal parts, ifthe portion of the circle which makes the difference between the upper and lower diameter, be also divided into eight parts, by which eight diameters would be obtained, which would render the diminution more perfect. In the same manner must all the other columns be managed, both in the method of drawing and diminishing them, so that nothing more needs be said on the subject, under the other columns. To represent the Tuscan column in perspective, requires some skill in that art. If, therefore, the reader be not already acquainted with the general rules of this branch of drawing, he should first attend to the article perspective, otherwise it will be in vain to attempt it. In giving the following instructions for drawing the preen J 158 COL five orders of columns in perspective, it is taken for granted that the learner is acquainted with the elementary part of the subject ; and, therefore, after carefully in specting the plate, he will only want a few hints to assist him in such a representation . If, however, he has never drawn the orders geometrically, this should first be done, as we have now directed in the Tuscan, otherwise the nature of the returns, and profiles of the mouldings, will not be represented in perspective as they ought to be. The learner being thus prepared, let him proceed by determining the height of his drawing, and making the same scales as are shewn in the plate ; and having made the module, take 25 minutes, and lay on each side No. 1 at the top, as at 0,2, then take 45, and lay on each side as 8,7, which will give the whole projection of the entablature. Consider then the height of the horizon, and the length of the distance, which should be consider able, to prevent a distorted appearance, then having fixed upon these as at s, d, draw from 8 , 7, to s, the centre or point of sight, and then from 7, to d, the distance which, cutting the visual 8, s gives the square of the entablature. From 7 let fall a perpendicular to g, on the base line, and from g direct a line to the distance, which will be the diagonal of the square of the plinth. Then from No. 1 , at the top, let fall a perpendicular to the base line, which gives the centre of the plinth, from which, each way, 30 minutes must be laid for the under diameters of the shaft, and then 10 minutes more on each side for the base, as is expressed, by the con centric circles on the plinth, the smallest of which being the shaft, and the largest the base. From the ex must be laid on 11 minutes each square of the lowest plinth, and shews the difference between it and the whole entabla tremities of this base, way, which give the

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the 534S ce to D ول Off DA ing ex. ach and bla ture above, as from k to g, so that the plinth recedes so far from the base line. The numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, at the top, are the several projections of the cornice, as specified on the large profile, which are all to cut the diagonal tending from 7 to the distance, by being drawn to the centre of the picture at s . Proceed, lastly, to place all the heights upon the perpendicular 7, g. As from g to ƒis the height of the pedestal, and from ƒtod of the plinth ofthe base ; and a, b, c, d, e, are the places of diminution, as shewn at fig. A. Then frome lay on 30 minutes for the capital, the next 30 minutes for the architrave, the next 30 for the frieze, and lastly , 45 for the cornices, all which lines must be drawn to the distance, which will find the squares of their projections, by cutting their corresponding visuals drawn from the projections placed at 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7, at the top. In the same manner must the height of each fillet and mould ing be placed, and drawn to the distance. For the circular mouldings of the base and capital, nothing can be done more than finding the perspective squares in which they may be inscribed, and then traced round by the eye, as the learner is supposed to be acquainted with putting a circle in perspective, and of which we have given a hint at the lower plinth, by dividing the lower semi-diameter of the shaft into seven equal parts, two of which are taken as at 2, and a line is drawn to the point of sight, cutting the diagonal h at the point through which the curve is to pass.. If after proceeding, the learner should find himself baffled by a multiplicity of lines, it will be best to finish by parts at a time, and rub out the pencil lines that are not wanted for the outline ofthe column, and then to proceed again. And though such a representation of the Tuscan column will, to a learner, prove difficult at best, yet the 160 COL method here exhibited, is the most simple of any have yet seen. And to relieve his thoughts after the preceding dry detail of parts in drawing, it may be proper to touch on the antiquity, character, and use, of the Tuscan order, which will tend to complete his ideas of this column. And in order to keep the architectural part of this work as much together as possible, and to occupy as small a portion of these pages as can be dispensed with, I shall in this place include an account of the other four orders, and afterwards give short directions for drawing them, but which will be much shortened, as what hath already been observed of the Tuscan order, will apply to every other, so that by inspecting the plates, nothing more will be requisite in drawing them either geometri cally or perspectively, excepting in some trifling things peculiar to each column ofthe orders, excepting, indeed, what relates to an oblique view of the Ionic. The Tuscan order then, according to Palladio, who is generally allowed to be the most competent judge of ancient architecture, was first invented in Tuscany, a considerable part or province in Italy, from whence it had its name. In point of antiquity it is inferior to the three Grecian orders, as well as in beauty. Vitruvius, however, who wrote on ancient architecture, in the reign of Titus, the Roman emperor, about the 80th year of our Lord, mentions this column under the title of the rustic order, but which then, he says, had not the laws of its symmetry settled ; or it is taken , I believe, by some to be spoken of the Doric in its original state : but it seems to me, that there is no material difference between the Doric and the Tuscan orders in this respect , though the Tuscan did not receive its name, nor arrive at its state of perfection , till the Lydians out of Asia, who formed a colony in Tuscany, first intro COL 161 1 T . • ment sively. duced it. It is commonly believed amongst architects, that the orders were gradually enriched from the first period oftheir invention, which had their origin from the manner of building the ancient huts by trunks of trees, with their branches laid transversewise, on which to form a roof or covering. Under this view it is natural to suppose that the Tuscan was the first order, being most like the proportion of the trunk of a tree, and re sembling it most in point of simplicity. Its being called the Tuscan order is not a sufficient argument against the remoteness of its antiquity, as it is easy to conceive it possible, nay, probable, that in its original state it existed prior to the Doric ; though it did not receive a provin cial name till after times, or posterior to the three regu lar Grecian orders. And as Vitruvius speaks of a state of rudeness in which the Doric was previous to its being a settled order, it is very consistent to infer, that the Doric was fashioned from what we now call the Tuscan ; as it appears to be a fact, that the Ionic was an improve of the Doric, and so of the other orders succes Hencethe Tuscan is the most simple ofall the orders, and is most generally executed without those decorations which give such grace and beauty to the others ; yet in that Tuscan column, built at Rome in memory of the great Trogan, it is carried to a degree of enrichment equal to any other. There is no regular profile estab lished in this order by the ancients. Those of Palladio and Vignol are esteemed the most characteristic of the order ; and for which reason, that which is here pre sented is a compound of both. This order is generally used for country buildings, gates, farm-houses, warehouses, and in all situations where simplicity and strength are required. If, says Pal ladio, a work is to be composed of this plain order, the M 162 COL inter columniation may be very wide for the admission of carts and other country conveniencies, and to render the work less expensive. For this purpose he assigns four diameters of the lower part of the shaft for the space between each column, denominated areostyle, which is the largest ofany allowed by the ancients. OF THE DORIC ORDER. This order was used in the most ancient temples, and was, as Palladio affirms, invented by the Dorians, a Gre cian people. It has no particular base assigned to it by ar chitects, it being always executed without any in the an cient temples. The moderns have however added one to it, generally the attic, and sometimes one of a more simple structure, consisting of two toruses. See Nos. 2, 3, plate 11. It is next in strength to the Tuscan; and being of a grave and robust figure, is styled in figu rative language the Herculian order. Its triglyphs are supposed to represent the ends of joists, and the mutules in the cornice, the ends of rafters. In rich compositions , both ancient and modern, the suffit of the mutules and that of the coronas are fre quently ornamented ; the former with conical drops, the latter with roses in lozenge compartments, These ornaments should be wrought in the solid, both of the mutules and coronas, without any projection beyond them; but in the exterior part of buildings these orna ments are often omitted. The metopes in the frieze should be perfectly square, and may be adorned with dif ferent ornaments suitable to the character of the building in which it is employed. The ancients used frequently to enrich the metopes of this order with ox skulls and pateras alternately, but other ornaments may with propriety be introduced both in public and private buildings. In the former, crests and ThMpK COL 163 SC 75 badges of dignity, heads, vases, or pateras encircled with oak or laurel leaves ; and in the former, whatever seems characteristic of the nature and use of the building may be employed ; particularly cherubs, doves, garlands of palm and olive, and other devices of moral virtue, when the structure is for religious purposes. The shaft or fust ofthe columns of this order is some times adorned with 20 or 24 shallow flutings, the centre ofwhose curviture is found by taking the width of the flute, and with it turning two arches, and the point of in tersection will be the centre ofthe flute. As the Doric order is sometimes appropriated for in ternal decorations of works, the order in this case may have a module added to its height. And this may be done without increasing the proportion of the capital or entablature. In general, however, this order ought to be employed in large and massy buildings ; such as the gates of cities, towers and fortresses, where no great de licacy ofornament is necessary, but where shelter is re quisite, as frontispieces for doors, because of the projec tion ofits entablature, which is much more than any of the other orders. The intercolumniation of this order is by Vitruvius termed diastylas, or somewhat less than three ofthe lower diameters of the shaft, which is other wise termed by some architects ditriglyph ; because from the centre of two columns, placed at two and three fourths diameters from each other, two triglyphs will come in at 45 minutes distant from each other. But sometimes the intercolumniation is monotriglyph, hav ing only one between each column, and then the co lumns are only at a distance equal to one and one-half diameters. And it must be observed, that a triglyph is always placed over the centre of each column. This sometimes occasions a difficulty in the placing ofthe co lumns in some works where the length of the entablature 164 COL will not divide according to these rules. But whatever variation be necessary, it must not be in respect of the triglyphs being over the centre of each column. It must be in the metopes or spaces between each triglyph, which may be enlarged or contracted so as not to be observed. For the proportions of this order see the plate, where observe, that there are three scales by which to propor tion the entire column as in the Tuscan, with this dif ference, that is, the addition of one diameter in the co lumn including base and capital. The Ionic has its scale divided the same way, allowing nine diameters ; but ob serve, that the Corinthian and Composite, after dividing the whole height into five equal parts, and taking one for the height of the pedestal, the four remaining parts are to be divided into six equal parts, one of which is for the entablature, and the five remaining for the column, which being divided into ten, one is given for the lower diameter. According to these proportions the three principal parts of each order will contain the following minutes. The Doric. Ionic. 149 161 480 540 120 108 Entire order 749 809 900 Corin. Comp. 180 180 600 600 120 120 Pedestal Column Entablature 900 OF THE IONIC ORDER. This order, in point of delicacy, comes in due place. It is considered as the female order, being more slender than the Doric. Palladio says, it owes its original to Ionia, an Asiatic or Grecian province. Of this order à most celebrated temple was erected at Ephesus to Diana; and, as some think, by the Amazons, or female warriors COL 165 in that city ; who, after having conquered many nations, they, in honour to their female deity their patroness, built, or caused to be built this magnificent temple in the Ionic order. The ornaments of this order are truly ele gant and chaste, being in a style of composition between the grave Doric and the rich Corinthian orders. Being however inclined to gravity, it may be properly employed in courts of justice, in libraries and colleges, and in all places that belong to arts and letters . The most an cient Ionic order is the most beautiful, having no astra gal at the collarino to interrupt the the outlines of the fust or shaft, which seem to terminate in the pleasing turn of the volute. Herein I must differ from some of our present architects, who consider the astragal as an additional beauty. To me it seems entirely to de stroy the effect of the capital, and has scarcely any re spectable precedent, except in one found in the ruins of Athens, published by our countryman Mr. Stuart. Pal ladio assigns a circular frieze to this order, but is very properly rejected by Vignolo and other respectable ar chitects, as bordering upon a repetition of the contour of the volute, and thereby injuring the simplicity of the profile ofthe whole entablature. As this order admits of elegance and dignity, the mouldings are sometimes en riched, and the freize with foliage and other suitable or naments ; but in general the mouldings only are enriched, as appears from most of the ancient specimens of this order. The shaft is sometimes fluted with 24 flutes, proportioned the same as the Corinthian, three parts to a flute and one to the fillet, and the depth of the flute somewhat less than half its width. The intercolumnia tion is after the different styles or modes of the Doric or Corinthian orders. For describing the Ionic volute, see VOLUTE, and under which article all the ornamental ca pitals are duly explained, 166 COL OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. The Corinthian is the last of the Grecian orders , and is certainly the summit of all that can possibly be attain ed in architecture, in point of delicacy and beauty. If the Ionic may be termed a sedate matron in decent attire, this order certainly may be compared to a genteel lady in her richest apparel. This order was the production of the city of Corinth , when the arts had arrived at their most finished state in that, of all other cities of the Gre cian districts, the most opulent. Whenthe ambitious eye of Rome could no longer bear to view the increasing glory of this renowned seat of Grecian ingenuity, she sent her powerful army under the direction of Lucius Mumius, and in one day laid waste the works of more than nine ages from the period of its first foundation. Ofthe Corinthian order the Composite is an imitation, made by the Roman artists , doubtless with a view to ex cel the Corinthians after they had destroyed their city, that they might obtain that renown of which they had attempted to deprive those Grecians . But though they succeeded by the force of arms, they did not equal them in the composition of their order, for at best it is but a stolen piece, composed of the Grecian, Ionic, and Co rinthian orders. As it has no beauty peculiar to itself, but only borrowed from these, it can hardly be consi dered as a distinct order, and therefore I shall not speak of it under a distinct paragraph, but in general observe, that the proportions are the same with the Corinthian; but being not confined to any established rule as the other orders are, it is sometimes made more slender than the Corinthian, by adding a diameter to its height. The variations ofthe capitals are not only observable in the plates, but are particularly noticed under the article Vo LUTE, which see . With respect to the invention ofthe Corinthian capital, which has given this order so much the advantage over the others, and by which it has justly COL 167 " obtained its celebrity, Vitruvius ascribes it to Callima chus, a sculptor at Corinth, who having seen an acan thus growing up the side of a basket with a tile laid over it; the leaves were turned downwards by the projection ofthe tile, which being minutely observed by this inge nious artist, he was struck with the idea of forming it into a capital, which he applied to the Corinthian column. The ancients employed this order in tem ples dedicated to Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and wherever magnificence was required. It is also proper for pa laces, public squares, in the richest apartments of young ladies, and in other situations of gaiety. For the names of each member of the orders, see MOULDINGS, and in drawing the columns geometrically, observe what has already been said on drawing the Tus can order ; and with respect to what remains to be no ticed on their perspective representation, I proceed with the Doric column ; which, for the sake of variety and the learner's practice in perspective, is here represented on three steps, by which the ancients used in general to ascend to those temples composed of this order. First, for the representation of the steps , let a 7, be the extent ofthe first step, and 6, 5, 4, the breadth of the steps, and having made the module as at No. 4, let o be the centre ofthe column, and 1 , 2 equal to the module, or 60 min. 2, 3, is the projection of the base, and 3, 4 of the plinth and cornice of the pedestal. From b draw a line to dthe distance, which will be the diagonal of all the squares on the ground plane ; therefore, proceed to draw visuals to s the centre from the several parts now placed upon the ground line a, b, and they will cut at c, d, e, f, g, h, from which intersections raise perpendiculars at pleasure . Draw then the perpendicular scale line at b, continued the whole height of the column to t, on which must be placed the several heights ofthe members, beginning first 圈 168 COL withthe heights of the steps at 8, 9, 10, from which di rect lines to d, the distance, and the perpendiculars al ready drawn will be cut in their proper points for the angles of the steps, as must be apparent to the learner, if he has duly attended to the perspective of the Tuscan order. From 10 to m is the height of the pedestal, n to : ofthe capital, to q of the architrave, q tor of the frieze, and r tot of the cornice, which are severally drawn to d the distance, together with the members, which are to be intersected from the projections laid on z, t, by drawing them to s, as directed in the Tuscan order. The mutules with the caping or small moulding which miters round them, will occasion the most trouble to the learner, with which probably he will be baffled at first, but he must persevere in the contest till he obtain the conquest. The width ofthe mutule is 30 min. which being laid on from 11 to 12, draw the visuals to s the centre, and on the line already found for the facia, against which they are placed, these visuals must stop, which will give the place of the mutules. To make this easily understood, at No. 3 the figure shews the above lines, which being properly conceived nothing further is requisite for drawing the modillon of the Corinthian or der ; therefore observe, that the space 1 , 2 , is 30 minutes for the mutule, and o, 3, of the upper diameter of the co lumn, and the line 4, 8, or from 0 to 4 is 114 minutes projection from the column for the facia ofthe cornice, against which the mutules are placed, as may be seen by the large profile. Therefore the line 4 , 8, tending to the point of sights, cutting the diagonal tending to d, gives the point at 8 for the perspective facia : draw then 9, 10, parallel, and you have the seat or place of the mutule, from which points let fall perpendiculars. From 5 to 6 on the perpendicular line is 20 minutes, fromthe top of the cornice to the under side of the corona, therefore COL 169 draw 6 to d, the distance, which will cut the perpendicu lar line 8, giving the depth of the facia ; draw then per pendiculars from 9, 10, which give the exact place of the mutule on the front ; then for the projection of the mutule nothing more is wanted but to draw from d the distance to b. Lastly, for the mutules on the return. draw the line 6, 11 , and the parallel 11 , 13 , 15 , and from 15 to the distance, which cuts at 12 and conse quently gives the width of the mutule, from which that on the left return is found at once by parallel lines. At No. 4 isthe method of finding the place of the flutes, by dividing the quarter of the lower and upper diameter into 6 equal parts, as there are no fillets in this order. But observe, ifthe perspective of a column be very large, the place ofthe flutes should be found by first drawing the simi-circle in perspective, on a separate paper, and finding the flutes upon the perspective curve, and then transfer them to the columns. In small representations, I mean such as are three times the size of those in the plate, it is not requisite, only to observe carefully which is the per spective centre of the column ; for on the centre must be placed the first flute, which must be observed in all the orders. 4 The Ionic order is exhibited under an oblique view for the sake of variety, and to give the learner as much information as I could on the subject ; but I take it for granted, that he is already acquainted with the nature of oblique perspective, at least in plain figures, otherwise I despair of succeeding in my description of the lines. Consider then A, B, the base line, and o, F, a perpen= dicular line, passing through the centre of the picture i draw the vanishing line v, m, which will cut the perpen dicular 6, F, in the center or point of sight, which in this example is behind the shaft of the column. From this centre lay on the distance, which exceeds the bounds 170 COL of the plate, but which may be found by the line h, i, being produced till it cut the perpendicular o, F ; from which point of distance draw the line w, perpendicular, to h, i. These two lines being produced till they cut the vanishing line v, m, give the vanishing points of the sides of the pedestal and cornice ; and as the line F, v, passes through the diagonal of the square of the cornice : hence it is the vanishing point ofall the miters, and has the same effect in finding the projections of the mould ings, as the line tending to the distance has in parallel representations, as shewn in the Doric. The point m is the distance ofthe vanishing point, found by the line w, on the left hand. Bythis point m the several widths are to be determined by lines cutting visuals tending to the several vanishing points. In this manner the drawing board must be prepared before we can proceed. Then from the module take 44 minutes, the whole projection ofthe cornice, and place it from F to 11 , on the line 8 G, take also 50 minutes for the upper diameter of the co lumn, and place it from 11 to 9, and from 9 take again 44 min. and place to 8 , and do the same to the other hand, and draw to the vanishing points each way from F. Then draw lines from the several projections laid on before to m, which will cut the vanishing lines from F proportionally, from which draw lines tending to the right hand vanishing point, and they will cut the diago nal line F. v, in the points required. In like manner proceed with the pedestal, and observe that 0, 2 , is the difference between the projection of the cornice and the plinth of the pedestal ; 2, 3, 4, are for the dado and plinth ; and in like manner must the projections of the several mouldings be laid on, and lines drawn to the dis tance point m, on the left hand, which fall upon the ca pital of the profile, will cut 0, 1, from which points di rect lines to the vanishing point as before, which will COM 171 cut the diagonal line o, v, in the several points of pro jection for the shaft, plinth, and dado. Lastly, upon o, F, lay on the several heights, and draw all of themto v, which will find the perspective heights of each part and members of parts . The small scale t, s, by the va lute is drawn from the perpendicular o, F, the same as any other part, by which it is easy to perceive how it must be drawn in every part, which it is needless to en ter upon after what hath been said, and particularly as underthe term volute, we have given the three capitals of these orders at large with their perspective lines. To do which I have been encouraged from the consideration, that the capitals cannot so well be understood by the learner as by a perspective' view, which presents more of the parts to observation than in any other mode of drawing, as is evident from the whole order being thus represented, though under much disadvantage, on ac count of the small scale from which they are drawn ; and as in the Corinthian and Composite orders there is nothing but the capitals which require more than what we have already said under the preceding orders, we need only refer the learner to the plates, and to the capi tals under the term VOLUTE. Lastly ; observe, that the manner of diminishing and fluting the columns of every order are the same, except in the fluting of the Doric, in which there is sometimes left a very small fillet for strength, but generally are brought upto a point, for which reason they have the shallow curviture peculiar to this order. COMB-TRAY, in cabinet making, is a tray of a small size, made of mahogany, and used in a lady's dressing table. The best way of making these is to make a block of deal or beach beveled to the side of the inend ed comb-tray, then let the sides of the tray be mitered up to this block at the corner, and keyed. For finding the 172 COM angle or mitre of any thing of this nature, independent of a block. See GEOMETRY. COMMODE, from the French, and signifies a woman's head dress. In cabinet making it applies to pieces of furniture, chiefly for ornament, to stand under a glass in a drawing room, such as are in plates 35 and 36. It is sometimes used more agreeably to its derivation, and sig nifies such commodes as are used by ladies to dress at, in which there is a drawer fitted up with suitable conve niencies for the purpose, as in plate 41 -see Dressing Commode, and Dressing Sofa Table. The commode in plate 35 is adapted to stand under a large glass, either in a pier or at the end of a room. The ornaments in the top and at the bottom frieze are brass inlaid, which on a dark ground will have a good effect. The upper frieze is of cross banding, and is formed into drawers, or it may be without, as is commonly the case when such commodes are used chiefly as ornaments ; and under this idea it is sufficient to fit up the inside with plain shelves. The doors may be framed, firſt square, and corner pieces put in after of thin mahogany, and then the hollows mi tered round of the same stuff afterwards, and ve neered and cross banded. The trelies work before the silk curtains is of brass, either of wrought wire or cut from sheet brass, and halflapped in the intersections, and soldered. As to any other part of this design it must to the the workman be quite intelligible. In plate 36, the commode may stand at the end or side of a room where there is no glass , it being of itself more lofty in appearance by means ofthe centre glass . The project ing piers at each end have their backs of face glass, which produces a brilliant effect by reflecting any thing that is placed before it, as the flower pot on the right. The manner of fixing the glass in the centre is by a brass pattera, to which the circular brass rod is COM 173 Joined, and screwed to the ends of the piers at each end; and through the centre of the circular glass frame is a screw, which passes through the brass rod, and is then screwed bya nut. The glass thus fixed will turn to any position that may be required. The fret work at the bottom is of brass, with the rim round the top. The frieze may be formed into drawers or not, as noticed in the other, and the inside of the piers on the top may be htted up as shewn on the right side. The small co lumns at the angles of the piers are an imitation ofthe lonic, and finish with a round ball at the top. The tops ofthe piers are formed first by a cove mitered round, on which is placed the figure of a pyramid. For any other particulars the design itself is sufficient. COMPARTMENT. The different divisions of a picture, or pannels in a ceiling. COMPASSION, in painting, is represented by a woman holding a pelican's nest in her left hand, who piercing her breast seems to suckle her young ones with her blood. She extends her hands in a compassionate man ner to beftow charity to the indigent. The pelican is the true emblem of compassion, for she is said never to stir from her young, and when her nourishment fails, she feeds them with her blood. COMPLEMENT, in geometry, is what remains of the quadrant of a circle or 90° after any certain arch hath been taken away from it ; therefore, if the arch taken away be 40°, the complement is 50°. COMPOSITE denotes something compounded or made up of several things, so as to form one whole properly united together. Thus it is applied to the fifth order of architecture, as being composed from the other orders . COMPOSITION, in a general sense, is the uniting of or putting together several parts forming or producing an entire piece. Thus it is applied to designing in general, 174 CON and denotes, if a good composition, the proper choice and harmony of the parts of which it is composed . See DRAWING and PAINTING. CONCAVE. A term commonly applied to spherical glasses, ground hollow. CONCENTRIC, something that has the same common centre with another. Circles that are drawn from one centre, but of different radii, are said to be concentric circles. CONCLAVE, a closet or inner chamber. CONCORD, in painting is represented by a grave beauti ful lady in an antique dress , holding in her right hand a bason with a heart and pomegranate in it, and a garland offlowers and fruit on her head, and in her left hand a sceptre ; on the top of which are various flowers and fruits . The heart and pomegranate denote concord, for the seeds ofthe pomegranate will unite together, though they be separated from the root. CONDUIT, canals or pipes for the conveyance of water or other fluid matter. CONE, in geometry is a solid figure, having a circle for its base, and its top terminated in a point called its vertex . CONFIGURATION. The outward figure which bounds bodies, and gives them their external appearance ; being that which in a great measure constitutes the specific difference between them. CONGE, in architecture is a moulding in form of a quar ter round, or cavetto, serving to separate two members from each other, as the apophyge, which is situated be tween the shaft and scincture, but joins them together. CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body is made to touch another ; and the parts that do thus touch are called the points or places of contact. CONTENT, in geometry, is the aræ or quantity of mat ter or space included in certain bounds, as the content of CON 173 a board signifies its superficial measurement in feet and inches. CONTOUR. The outlines, or that which terminates and defines a figure. A great part of the skill ofa pain ter consists in the management of the contour, or the li near part of a design ; without this, all the other excel lencies in painting are destroyed and of no effect. This consideration evidently points out the necessity of train ing up youth to correct drawing of every branch ; as no one can possibly attain the perfection of painting, with out being skilled in four or five branches of fundamental drawing, i. e. architecture, perspective, landscape, and figures. CONTRAST, opposition in colour, shape or situation. In cabinet making it may be used to denote the agree able distinction of figure produced by different coloured woods joined to each other in banding or pannelling. Sometimes the contrast of bandings may be too strong for the ground veneer to which the banding is joined ; in which case the beauty of the veneer will be partly lost, because the eye will be most attracted by the band ing, owing to its excessive contrast of colour to the body ofthe work. Suppose the ground work to be a delicate, pale, and richly figured satin wood, and there be joined to it a broad black wood border or broad band, with the addition of another equally broad of white holly, the ex periment would prove, that the fine satin wood veneer would lose a considerable part of its beauty by it. Some degree of this excessive contrast is admissible with safety when the ground veneer is less delicate, or poor faulty wood; for then, as we have noticed, the eye will be drawn to the banding and taken off the poor wood, and consequently proves favourable to the work. Poor wood, doubtless, is least deserving of much banding, but stands most in need of it. On the other hand, the con 176 CON trast produced by banding may, and is as frequently, too weak for the ground veneer, in which case consider able expence proves of no use. This is always the case when poor tulip wood, or even the best of it, is joined to mahogany, for it turns by the air nearly to a mahogany colour. To produce an agreeable contrast in cross banding, it will require different bandings to the different qualities ofwood of the same species. In light coloured mahogany, of a soft quality, and liable to change dark, strong coloured kingwood will produce and keep up to the end a proper contrast. If it be dark hard wood, not so subject to turn, a fair coloured East or West India satin wood will keep a pleasing contrast. Dark red and light yellow will always harmonize, and a small quantity of black and a red ground will also appear agreeable, and so will a little black and a yellow ground. With respect to agreeable contrast in banding, it is also necessary to adjust its width in a suitable proportion to the colour and dimensions of the ground work ; for if the banding in colour be not strongly opposed to the ground veneer, in this case it should be used broader, though it be but a small ground. But if it be a very striking contrast, the width ofthe banding ought to be reduced in proportion. In cases, however, where there is an extensive ground, such as in loo tables, the cross banding will bear both great width and strength of contrast. These observa tions will convince the intelligent cabinet maker, that the harmony of contrast in cabinet making is of some con sequence, as well as in the art of painting. Which leads me to observe, that in this fine art, it consists in the dif ference ofposition, attitude, and the colouring of figures, with the disposition of the whole piece, so as to avoid si milar angles, parallel lines, a sameness of position, or a heaviness in grouping. COP 177 Thus, when in a group of three figures, one is shewn before, another behind, and a third sideways, there is said to be a contrast ; and the contrast is not only to be observed in the position of several figures, but also in that of the several members of the same figure ; for if the right arm advance the farthest, the right leg is to be hindmost ; and if the eye be directed one way, the arm is to go the contrary. In this fine art the contrast may also be too strong, and to such a degree as to border upon distortion ; and therefore excessive contrast `must be avoided ; and particularly in the colouring of figures in their different groups, where the difference or opposi tion in them should not be too sudden, but communicate mutually, or seem to do so, a mixture of each by reflec tion. CONVERSATION, signifies a discourse or interlocution between two or amongst more persons. The manner of conversing amongst some of the highest circles of com pany, on some occasions, is copied from the French, by lounging upon a chair. Hence we have the term con versation chairs, which is peculiarly adapted for this kind of idle position, as I venture to call it, which is by no means calculated to excite the best of conversation. As, however, these chairs give scope for variety, wehave here given a design of one-see plate 27. And it should be observed, that they are made extraordinary long be tween back and front, for the purpose of space for the fashionable posture ; and also that they are narrow in front and back, as an accommodation to this mode of conversing. COPAL " is a gum of the resinous kind, brought from New Spain, being the concrete juice of a tree which grows in these parts. It comes to us in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, and of different shades, as to colour, from a yellow to a deep brown. Some pieces N 178 COR are whitish and transparent. It hath neither the solubi lity in water common to gums, nor in spirit of wine common to resins, at least in any considerable degree. By these properties it resembles amber ; which has induced some to think it a mineral bitumen, resembling that substance. In distillation it yields an oil, which like mineral petrolea is indissoluble in spirit of wine. Copal itself is soluble in the essential oils , particularly in that of lavender, but not easily in the expressed ones. It may, however, be dissolved in linseed oil by digestions, with a heat very little less than is sufficient to boil or decompose the oil. This solution, diluted with spirit of turpentine, forms a beautiful and transparent varnish, which when properly applied, and slowly dried, is very hard and durable. This varnish is applied to snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils. It preserves and gives lustre to painting, and greatly restores decayed colour of old pictures, by filling up the cracks, and rendering the surfaces capable of reflecting light in a more uniform manner." Brit. Encyclop. CORIDOR, in architecture, is used for a gallery or long isle around a building, leading to several chambers at a distance from each other, sometimes wholly inclosed, and sometimes open on one side. Some architects use the word to denote a place inclosed round with balusters at the top of a building. It is, however, more decidedly to to be understood of a long passage, narrow hall , or en trance leading to principál apartments, and which re quire a seat sometimes for persons waiting. Such seats should be made narrow and long to agree with their si tuation, and may be properly termed Coridor Stools. CORK. The bark of a tree of the same name, which some botanists reckon to be a species of the oak, of which, according to Linnæus, there are fourteen. It grows in the coldest parts of Biscay, in the north of 40 COR 179 3@ C I: De 퍼 50% am is bo dg ola TIES uni or Ders used,2 Use 7000 08 ich ch s ls. ak, CD. rth England, in Italy, and the south-west part of France. It will grow in any kind of ground, dry heath, and stony or rocky mountains, where for want of depth of earth the roots will rise above the surface. To take off the bark, they make an incision from the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extremity another round it, per pendicular to the first. When the bark is stripped from the tree, which does not therefore die, the bark is piled up in a pond or ditch, and pressed down with heavy stones to flatten it, and reduce it into tables, whence it is taken to be dried, and afterwards put up in bales for car riage. If care be not taken to strip off the bark, it splits and peals off of itself, being pushed up by another bark, formed underneath . The Spaniards burn cork to make that kind of light black we call Spanish black, used by painters. The Egyptians, it is said, made coffins of cork, which, beinglined with a resinous composition , preserved dead bodies uncorrupted. The Spaniards line stone walls with it, which not only renders them very warm, but corrects the moisture of the air. The wood of cork-tree isnot only fit for turning, but may be applied to some purposes in building CORNICE . . From coronis , a crown . In architecture the cornice is the highest or crowning member of the co lumn. above the In the entire order there are two cornices, one dado of the pedestal , and that which finishes the entablature . In cabinet work , cornices are now made much lighter than formerly , to which alteration I feel no objection , as they do not come strictly under the rules of architecture

but if some parts of cabinet work were brought more subject to its laws, it would appear more attracting. Under the article MOULDINGS are given some designs for modern cornices , which see , and for window cornices see WINDOW . 180 COT COROMANDEL WOOD, is a foreign wood lately in troduced into England, and is much in use amongst ca binet makers for banding. It resembles black rose wood, but is intermingled with light stripes, which produce a good effect in banding. Wash a little paper with a little Indian red and lake, and after it is dry, mix lake and In dian ink together, with a small quantity of dark brown, with which it may be nearly imitated. In texture it is close, and in weight about equal to black rose wood. This valuable wood has its name from the place whence it is imported. Coromandel, which lies on the eaftern coaft of the Peninsula, on this side ofthe Ganges in Asia, and is divided from Malabar by inaccessable mountains. And as excessive heat seems to give birth to that rich variety of woods which we have the plea sure of seeing imported, doubtless Coromandel, if fully explored, would send us many more ; as it seems exces sive heat reigns in this vast tract from the beginning of Mayto the end of October. COTT, a sort of bed used at sea, and formed of canvas, sewed together in the shape of a chest, and is about 6 feet long, 2 feet broad, and 1 foot decp. The bottom is made of a wood frame, and ftrained with canvas ; the whole being suspended by cords to some of the beams of the ship ; it swings, and gives way to the motion of the sca. From these sea Cotts we have derived the notion of swinging cribs or cradles for children. - See CRIB. COTTAGE, " is properly a little house for habitation without lands belonging to it. Stat . 4, Edw. I. But by a later ftatute, 31 Eliz . c. 7, no man may build a cot tage unless he lay four acres of land thereto, except it be in market towns or cities, or within a mile of the sea, or for the habitation of labourers in mines, sailors, foresters, COT 181 11"A rth lea કે . ces ut 6 de IS C4 .0 9.5 be Of 55, shepherds , &c . and cottages erected by order of juftices of the peace , for poor impotent people , are excepted out of the ftatute . The four acres of land to make it a cot tage within the law are to be freehold , and land of in heritance

and four acres holden by

a copy, or for life or lives , or for any number of years , will not be suf cient to make a lawful cottage. " Brit. Encyclop COTTON. Asoft downy subftance from the cotton tree. Cotton is separated fromthe seeds of the plant by a mill, and then spun and prepared for all sorts of fine works, as ſtockings, waistcoats, quilts, tapeſtry, cur tains . With cotton they also make muslin , and some times it is mixed with wool , sometimes with silk, and even with gold itself. The finest sorts come from Ben gal and the coast of Coromandel . It is imported to us in wool and in thread

the finest of which is to be dis

tinguished by its whiteness , dryness , and even spinning . Printed cotton furniture or hangings for beds have been varied to almost an infinite number of patterns , and it is difficult to fix upon the most approved or fashionable In the quality of printing , however , there is an essential difference , as some printed cottons will waſh well, and others will not. This is owing to the manner of fixing the colours after they are printed, as well as to theircomposition before they are printed. ones. The drugs which are used in the fats for fixing the colours of the best cottons are expensive, and conse quently cannot be afforded in the low priced prints. The greens in printed cottons are most liable to fail of any other colour, as I believe, from the information of one thatwas concerned in a manufactory of this kind, that nowillcomposition infallibly of a green hath yet been discovered that stand. The. best ofthis colour for ftand ingisthat which upon the wrong side appears blue, or otherwise yellow, not green itself. " 182 COU COUCH, from coucher, French, to lie down on a place of repose. Hence we have seats and beds that bear this name. -See plate 48, 49, and the article GRECIAN. Couch-beds are made sometimes with fixed and some times with loose testers. When they are made with loose testers, the pillars screw off from each corner of the couch, and the tester lath folds together, so that the whole may be inclosed within the seat of the couch, which is made hollow for the purpose-See plate 15. To give more breadth to the bedding, they are sometimes made with a board, hinged to fold in or out. When out, there are a couple of feet to support it, made either to screw off or fold in with the board ; and the whole be ing covered with a cotton case, it appears simply a couch or sofa. Couch in painting, denotes a lay, or impression ofco lour, whether in oil or water, wherewith the painter co vers his canvas, wall, wainscot, or other matter to be painted. Paintings are covered with a couch of varnish. A canvas to be painted must have two couches of size be fore the colours be laid on. COVERLET, from the French, couvrelit and COUNTERPANE, S counterpoint, the utmost of the bed clothes ; that under which all the rest are concealed. The counterpane is a coverlet wo ven in squares, according to this derivation ; of which there are many made of cotton. White cotton counterpanes of different qualities mea sure from 7 to 16 quarters. Coverlets, more vulgarly coverlids, are of the follow ing description, measuring from 5 to 9 quarters, various ftripes. From 6 to 10 quarters black weft diapers . Worsted red weft ditto of the same size . CRI 183

• 8-24 1.

R410 DU ofc er h. ze d 34 E Th کار And of the above mentioned sizes there are also dou ble black and red weft diapers. Also there are silk coverlets, bordered and fringed, as is shewn in the French bed, plate 13. And Diamond or Brussels coverlets. These articles, to gether with quilts, blankets, &c. of various sizes, may be purchased at Mr. Carpenter's, Ironmonger-Lane, Cheapfide, who was kind enough to furnish me with this account of Counterpanes . -See also QUILT. CRADLE, a movable bed for infants. -See CRIB . CRAMP, amongst cabinet makers, is an iron tool about four feet long, with a screw at one end, and a movable shoulder or arm at the other, by which mortice and te work is forced up close. It seems to be so called, because of its likeness to the shape of those cramp irons used by masons for binding stones together. CRESCENT, shaped like the new moon. CRIB, the rack or manger of a stable, or the stall or cabin of an ox. It is used for any small habitation, as a cot non tage. Under the notion of a rack , we presume , this name crib to have been given to the swinging beds , lately con trived to lull infants to sleep with , a design of which is given in Holinshade plate 18. Though they are made by a Mr. ofKing - street , Drury -lane , in a plainer style , to come less expensive than this would do. Instead of a dome heuses a plain waggon top . The manner of hang ing them isby a clock spring , as at A which hooks on to B, which is an iron center screwed to the standard . This springgives a continued motion to the crib after it is once set a going . He informs me , that in a little time he will be able to make one to move by itself for one hour and an half . The manner of framing such cribs will appear clear by inspecting the plate

but

it may be necessary to observe, that the turned rail which 184 CUL binds the standards together at the bottom must be se cured to them by screws and nuts, in the manner of large beds. The dome must be made very light, and screwed to an arch ofthe same radius, made separate from it first, and having fixed this arch on the top part of the rail of the crib, the dome must be secured to it. And the workmen may observe, that the standard at B is not quite the full size, but nearly. The claws and standards require to be of 14 inch stuff. CRIMSON, one of the seven red colours used by dyers. CUBA WOOD. A kind of mahogany somewhat harder than Honduras wood, but of no figure in the grain . It is inferior to Spanish wood, though probably the Cuba and Spanish mahogany are the same, as the island of Cuba is a Spanish colony, and was first discovered by Columbus, a Spanish navigator, in 1492. That, how ever, which is generally distinguished by Spanish maho gany is finer than what is called Cuba, which is pale, straight grained, and some of it only a baftard kind of mahogany. It is generally used for chair wood, for which some of it will do very well. CUBE, in geometry, is a regular or solid body consisting of 6 equal square sides, and at right angles to each other. Geometricians suppose it to be generated by the mo tion ofa square plane along a straight line equal to one of its sides, and at right angles to it ; whence it follows that the planes of all sections, parallel to the base, are squares equal to it, and consequently to one another. To find the content of a cube, multiply the side of the cube into itself, and that product again by the side, and the last product will be the solid content. CUBICLE, a bed-chamber. CULINARY, of or belonging to the kitchen . 1 CUR 185 1 27 P.D d 015 aha! pak me et sting ther CC: 13 33 CUPBOARD, a case with shelves, in which victuals or earthenware is placed. In cabinet making, however, the term is used without regard to this definition, and is generally applied to any little division of a piece of furniture which is inclosed by a door, whether such parts be fitted up with shelves or not. CUPOLA, a spherical vault or dome top. CURRICLE, a chaise oftwo wheels, drawn bytwo horses. This word is introduced on account of the chairs so called in plate 6, which are so easily understood by the require no explanation ; and as I have been informed, ' have already been executed since the plate was published . workman asto That on the left side may be 32 inches high in the back, and to slope a little lower to the front of the arm, and inthefront 2 feet over all. The otherdesign is not more than 28 inches high , and should be made narrow in front

but

the depth from back to front should not be less than than 2 feet . CURTAIN, a cloth contracted or expanded at pleasure

and this is done by means of rings fastened to the cur tain, and the lath atpassing times , whether along a rod for . windows But curtains or beds are, andfixed draw to upby pullies, or otherwise tie up with tassels and lines . At present the most approved way of managing win dow curtains is to make them draw from the centre to each side ofthe window , by drawing a line which is fixed to a pully rack , and communicates to the rod fixed to the under side ofthe window lath with hooks

and

that the curtains may lap over each other in the centre, the rod is made in two parts , shooting past each other about two or three inches . These rods are frequently made of sa un wood, and secured with brass hoops at each end , hav ing in each rod three pullies , as in plate 39

which

sketch is presented for the use of such country uphol 186 CYL fterers as may not underſtand this method, which by in specting the plate muft appear clear to them. CUSHION, a pillow for the seat, a soft pad placed upon a chair. Amongst upholsterers there are various kinds ; some for sofa seats, made to fit the seat in one length, some for backs of sofas and couches in two or three lengths, and for the ends. Cushions are also much in use for the seats of cane chairs. Cushions are stuffed with hair in a canvas case, and are then quilted or tied down, and have loose cases into which they slip. CYLINDER, in geometry, a solid body supposed to be generated bythe rotation of a parallelogram-See GEO METRY. And to put a cylinder in perspective, see PER SPECTIVE. CYLINDER BOOKCASE. See plate 37. This design to a workman will need little or no description, and any gentleman may see the use of it. I took the idea of it from one I have seen executed by Mr. John Somerville, Chancery-Lane, and if it be a little improved, that is all I claim in this piece. The cylinder rises from the front upwards, and there is a slider to come forward as usual. The wings ofthe upper part are for large volumes, as their depth from back to front will receive them. The lower middle part consists of plain drawers. The lower wings are here divided into two parts, the upper for cup boards and the right hand lower part into plain drawers, and left open as a closet. The Sisters Cylinder Bookcase, plate 38, is intended for the use of two ladies, who both may write and read at it together. The upper part is fitted up for books all round; but in order to receive the depth of the books on each front, the ends must be made sham books, as far from the fronts as to receive the depth of a small vo lume. See the sizes of books under the article Book CASE. From these backs must be a partition, which CYL 187 will part the shelves the other way, so that each book case front wise, will hold two depths of books, allowing for each in the clear 5 inches, which is as much as is required for a volume of 7 , or crown octavos, which these bookcases are intended for, and are the size chiefly usedby youngladies. Theworkman will observe, by the geometrical eleva tion, that the cylinder is nearly a sini-circle, and that therefore it passes downwards below the writing sliders and 2 ; but he must observe, that the cylinder is to be as much less than a simi- circle as the thickness of the sliders, otherwise the cylinder would not fall down enough to let the slider come over it ; for it opens on one side, as the right hand lady is supposed to have done, and she has pushed it down to the opposite side, where her sister is represented to be writing ; and the right hand sister is about to write herself, and is there fore lettingdown the narrow quadrant front, by relieving the thumbspring with the left hand, and with the right pressing downthe front. And the workman will further observe, that without this narrow front, expressed at 3, there wouldnot be sufficient width in the two sliders for writing at; and he will readily see that when these fronts areturned up, that they do not stand upright as in the wards, that when the sliders are pushed home , they may clear the cylinder , as expressed by the lines 1 , 4, 2, 5. Also it must be noticed , that there are three circles to describe the cylinder by; the 1st is for the groove in which it runs, the 2d is to denote its thickness , and the 3d the case, which hides the cylinder when it is down , and whenup to give it a complete appearance . The nest of drawers in the inside , by this plan , is wholly laid open when the cylinder is down , and the 188 CYM carcase of the small drawers will therefore have the best appearance to have an arch top, as expressed by the curve line at o. For every other part the design of itself will be sufficient ; it may be noticed, however, that the lock of this cylinder is in the frieze part under the slider ; and the link plate upon the edge of the cylinder, which, to draw it a by, must have also two flush plate rings. CYLINDERWRITING TABLE. In plate 39, is a cylinder without a bookcase, which is for a lady to write at. This cylinder is only a quadrant, i . e. that part of it which moves is so. But as it is intended, like the pre ceding one, to stand in the centre of a room, it is made to appear alike on each side. Therefore the cylinder is parted in two at the top, and the front one falls down to let the slider come forward. The lock of this table is in the edge of the cylinder ; and when it is down to its place, there are two flush plate rings let into it by whichit is to be raised up ; and the link plates being on the edge of the back cylinder, they meet together and lock at the top. The brass rod extending to the two ends ofthe cylinder, are for a candle branch, as is represented. This branch, if required, may be taken off occasionally, by unscrew ing the nut at each end of the rod. { 6. Lastly. The circular flaps at each end are made to coincide with the lower part of the cylinder ends, which are made to receive them ; so that when they are let down they appear to be the ends themselves. They are supported by brass joints in the form of a bracket, made for the purpose, and must be let into the end to keep clear of the flap when it is let down. The other parts ofthe design are obvious to the workman, and therefore requires no further notice. CYMATIUM, xupaltor, a little wave ; a member ofthe cornice, and generally the highest, and is waved, by CYM 189 4 B Pe 18 Vn tab do ממו bein get inde Crew de 20 ore being first round and then hollow. It is otherwise called cimarecta, in distinction from cimareversa, which begins its wave or swell from the top, having its hollow down ward. Workmen call it an ogee. The beauty of this moulding lies partly in its projection, being equal to its height, and therefore answers to two perfect quadrants of a circle convex and concave to each other. CYPRESS-TREE is of two sorts , the wild and the garden one. The The cypress is a tall tree, and shoots forth from its roots a straight stalk, divided into several branches that bear leaves very much indented, thick, and of a brownish green. At the ends of these branches grow flowers like cat-tails , composed of several little straight leaves or scales, and barren. The wood of this tree is durable, and has been known to last 600 years . Thetree in growing will bear any degree of severe weather, in casethey are not stripped of their branches. This timber is reckoned useful for chests, musical instruments, and as it resists the worm, and is not subject to putrefaction, because of the bitterness of its juice, and the unctious quality of its texture. says that thereare three species of the cypress tree ; 1st. the commoncypress, with imbrocated or hollow edged leaves and quadrangular branches ; 2d. the cypress, with leaves on two sides the branches ; 3d. with imbrocated leaves and branches standing two ways. species is a native of Crete, and seldom produces good Iseeds in this country. The cones or cat-tail shaped flowers, should therefore be brought over entire from the place wherethey grow naturally, and the seeds taken out just before they are sown. other utensils, Mr. Wheeler The first seeds The method to get the willmake out, isthem to expose the cones to a gentle heat, which open and emit their seeds. This tree, though foundin most of our old gardens, is at present lessregardedthan it deserves. 190 . DAD ? ty to a wilderness or clumps of ever- greens ; but besides this, it ought to be cultivated on account of its valuable wood. The second species is a native of Virginia, Ca rolina, and other parts of North America, where it rises in watery places to the prodigious height of 70 feet and upwards, and several fathoms in circumference. The 3d specie is also a native of North America. All the three species are propagated from seeds, which should be sown early in the spring on a bed of warm dry sandy earth, which should be levelled very smooth. If the weather prove warm and dry, it will be proper to water the bed, taking care not to wash the seeds out of the ground. In about a month's time the plants will appear above ground, which ought to be kept free of weeds. After remaining two years in this bed, they may be transplanted into a nursery. The best season for re moving them is April, on a cloudy day that seems to threaten rain ; and in taking them out of the seed bed, the roots should be preserved entire, with a ball of earth to each plant. When they have been three or four years in the nursery, they may be planted out for good; and, ifdesigned for timber, the distance of 18 or 20 feet should be allowed every way around them. They must be well watered at first to settle the earth to their roots, which ought to be frequently repeated if the weather prove dry. Cypress nut is a very powerful astringent and balsamic. In diarrhoeas and dysenteries, there is scarce any simple medicine preferable to it. It is also said to be a good febrifuge. Wheeler's Botanical Dict. D DADO. The square part of a pedeſtal, which lies be tween the plinth and cornice, sometimes called the die. DEA 191 Ca རུ TR Fest -Y or ms →d be fem or kr good 20 fe ABB $15 shel The dado of a room or staircase, is that part of the wall which is between the base and surbase. DAMASK, from Damascus , a very ancient city of Syria, in Asia, where it was first invented. It is a sort of silken stuff, having some parts raised above the ground, representing flowers or other figures. Damask should be made of dressed silks, both in warp and woof. There is also a stuff in France called the caffart da mask, made in imitation of the real, having woof of hair, coarse silk, thread, wool, or cotton . Some have the warp of silk andthe woof of thread ; others are all thread or all wool . Damask is also a kind of wrought linen , made in Flanders , and in some parts in England

so

called be cause of its large flowers , which resembles those of real dainask . This kind is chiefly used for table service

buthangings the Syrian damask , for all kinds of dress , and various . Thereis also a very fine steel , called damask , from Damascus, where it is found . DANGER, in painting , is represented by a stripling , walking inthe fields , treading upon a snake , which bites his leg the on his right side is a precipice, and a torrent on other; he leans only upon a weak reed , and is sur rounded with lightning from heaven . His youth de notes his inexperience , by which he is endangered in his passage through the flowery field of life , of falling into some snare . The reed shews the frailty of our life , by which itis in continual danger

and

the lightning from heaven , that we are subject to the Divine displeasure by our sins . This piece of iconology will , I hope , serve as a moral lesson to unwary youth . DEAL, from Deel , Dutch , a part , quantity , or degree of, more or less . Hence, fir or pine timber being cut into thin portions, they are called deals . -See BOARDS. 192 DEN DECAGON, in geometry, is a plain figure of ten sides, and as many angles ; and if all the sides are equal, and all the angels, it is called a regular decagon, and may be inscribed within a circle. DECASTYLES. In ancient architecture , a building with an ordonance of ten columns in front, as that of the' Temple of Jupiter Olympius. DECEPTION-TABLE, is one made to imitate a pem broke table, but to answer the purpose ofa pot cupboard, other secret use , which we would hide from the or any eye of a stranger. In some situations the deception will be most effectual, if the table be made exactly the size of a common pembroke table with two flaps, having rule joints, whilst one of the flaps turns down, being hinged to a rail below, as shewn in plate 44, and supported by a quadrant, and when up, kept to its place by one or two thumb springs. If howeverthe deception table be only for a pot cupboard, and to stand under a sideboard with one side facing the room , or parallel to the front of the sideboard, it need only to be about 14 inches wide in the bed, and in length 31 or 32 inches. The depth of the cupboard 9 inches, so that the flap will be 10 inches wide, the usual size of pembrobe tables. And observe, this sort of deception table, need only have a deal back-rail coloured, and not a mahogany flap, as in the above described. DENTILS, from detalis, Latin, of or belonging to the teeth , and applied to a small ornament in architecture, because of their likeness to teeth. In the profiles of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, they have a place in the cornice of the entablature, and the facia in which they are placed is termed daticulus ; or when cut in solid stone, the square ofwhich they are formed is so called . The width of the dentils are 5 minutes, and the opening between them half that space. And observe, that a DIA 193 ten sides, qual, and d may be ding with at of the a pem upboart from the deception actly the o aps s down. 44, and its place deception d undera arallel to about 1 e 32inches. the flap pembroke ble, need ahogany tothe itecture, s ofthe in the ch they solid called bening chat a dentil is always placed upon the miter of the profile, and therefore it hangs bythe upper end only. DESIGN. See DRAWING. DESK. See BUREAU. Desks, for compting-houses, are generally made double, with a flap on each side hinged to a square part at the top, where is frequently a brass rail, supported on pillars, to receive a book laid out of hand. The inside of such desks are commonly fitted up with square holes for paper, and drawers for notes. Par ticularly it should be noticed, thatthe frame of a compt ing-house desk be of beech stained, andput togetherwith bed-screws that they may easily be taken to pieces . The height of such desks in front, including the frame, should be 3 feet 5 or 6inches to the top of the flap, andthe depth of the desk, without the frame, 4 inches rising to 9 in the centre. DIAGONAL, is a line in geometry which passes through the opposite angle of any square or parallelogram , di viding theminto two equal parts . Two diagonals of any square or parallellograms will intersect each other in the centre . gonal of sides; thatis, it cannot be so divided into equal parts as to make noremainder of a fraction , when applied to the The dia a square is in commensurate with one of its side. In perspective - the diagonal of every original square , having its sides parallel and perpendicular to the picture , and as in passes or tends to the distance ofthe picture on the hori zontal line, and the intersecting diagonal to a point on that line, equally distant from the centre of the picture ; geometry, the intersecting diagonal always finds perspective centre : but if the sides of an original square be oblique to the picture, the diagonal will vanish, or tend to a point in the centre of the two vanishing points of the sides of the square. the See PERSPECTIVE. Q A 194 DIN DIAMETER, in geometry, is a right line passing through the centre of a circle terminated by the circumference . The properties of the diameter are First, that it divides the circumference into three equal parts. Second, the diameter is the greatest of all the chords. Third, the ratio of the diameter to the circumference is 113 to 355, which is so near the truth as only to lose 3 of one hundred millionth parts. The inferior diameter of a column is equal to 60 minutes. The superior diameter-to 50 minutes . In perspective, the diameter of a circle is a line passing through the intersection ofthe diagonals of a square which circumscribes it. DIASTYLE. In ancient architecture, is when four di ameters are allowed to the intercolumniation. DIMENSION, is the extension of a body considered as being capable of being measured. DIMINUTION. In architecture, is to give the regular gradation of the column from its inferior to its superior diameter. See COLUMN. DINING-ROOM, is one of the principal apartments ofa house, and ought always to be of a bold and an accom modating proportion . In noblemens' dining - rooms, when the windows are all on the side opposite to the fires , there may then be a recess at each end of the room , in which a sideboard may stand, with columns before it placed at the extremities, which produces a very august appearance, and renders the service con siderably more easy at dinner than when there is but one fideboard. The furniture of a dining-room ought to be hold, substantial, and magnificent, in proportion to its dimensions. See FURNISH. DIN 195 Yough Ice. equal rds. react olose to 60 ASSI whic urd ered regular openci fitsof ICCCD TOOLS to the Jua ces1 203 Icre tobe patent. Dining- Room Chairs. See pl. 27, and the Curricles, pl. 6 ; and it is presumed that the right hand Hercula neum, pl. 7 , would suit some dining- rooms. DINING TABLE, of which there are various sorts now in use, and some under the protection of his Majesty's The common useful dining tables are upon pillars and claws, generally four claws to cach pillar, with brass casters. Adining table of this kind may be made to any size, by having a sufficient quantity of pillar and claw parts, for between each of these is a loose flap, fixed by means of iron straps and buttons, so that they are easily taken off and put aside ; and the beds may be joined to each other with brass fork or strap fastenings. And as the iron strap hinges are made to turn upon a centre, they may be turned down within the edge of the flap, to prevent any inconvenience that might arise from their projecting beyond the edge-see pl . 44 ; where also the young workman should observe, that the method of ad justing the size of its block to that of the top, is fhewn : and he must take notice to fix the claws into the pillars so asto come within the edge of the bed, that the joints maycometogether when the beds are fixed to each other without the flaps. In fig. 1, plate 44 , let 1 , 2, 3 , 4, be the spring of the claws which are not at right angles to each other , be cause the bed is supposed to be too narrow to admit of it; but being a considerable length , it requires a claw ofa large spring , which if at right angles or square to each other, would exceed the width of the bed , as noticed draw lines Having then fixed upon the plan of the claws , perpendicular from the points 2, 3 ; then from above. the line a and make b,the place the height of the claw, with caster, top of the block 24 inches from a b. Then on a perpendicular line c d place six feet the length of the bed, and make de equal e f and the remains 196 DIN . - will be the length of the block. These observationą properly attended to, will prevent the workman from being sometimes under the necessity of moving the bed to one side of the centre of the pillar, to make the top clear the claw in cases where the size of the block has not been properly calculated. They will be particularly useful in large loo tables, where the greatest nicety is requisite. The sizes of dining tables for certain numbers may easily be calculated, by allowing 2 feet to each person sitting at table ; less than this cannot with comfort be dispensed with. A table 6 feet by 3, on a pillar and claws, will admit of eight persons, one only at each end, and three on each side. Bythe addition of another bed twelve, with four times the room in the centre for dishes ; but if a third be joined, with the insertion of two flaps of 30 inches each, there will be agreeable room for twenty persons. I do not, however, advise a single dining table for eight persons only to be of the above dimensions : it should rather be 5 feet by 4, at which two upon each side may sit ; but if reduced to 4feet 8 inches long, and 3 feet 10 wide, it will dine the same number, and take the same quantity of wood as a table 6 feet by 3. The reasons for adding to the width , and reducing the length of a single pillar and claw dining table, are obvious ; for when they are but 3 feet wide, being occupied on both sides , there is no space left in the centre for dishes, and in addition to which incon venience, the want of space for the feet of those that dine. These hints, it is presumed, will be sufficient to prove the necessity of nice calculations in the management of dining tables, both for convenience and saving of ma hogany, which is now so materially expensive. See PATENT DINING TABLE. DOM 197 tion Frem TSO 201 eac thel DIPTERON. In ancient architecture, signified a temple surrounded with two rows of columns, forming a double portico, and sometimes termed the wings ofthe temple. DIRECTING PLANE. In perspective, is a plane pas sing perpendicularly through the eye of the observer and parallel to the plane of the picture. DIRECT RADIAL. In perspective, is an imaginary ray of light passing from the point of sight, or the eye perpendicular to the picture ; consequently is the shortest that can be represented by a line. If a line be drawn. from the point of sight inclining in any degree from the centre of the picture, it is said to represent an oblique radial, or ray of light. From which theory we may observe, that the light of a picture ought to be strongest in the centre. DISTANCE. In perspective, is the space from the place of the eye to the picture, found by a line drawn from the eye perpendicular to the picture ; the intersection of which is its centre. The distance ofthe picture, and of some vanishing lines, are however to be distinguished. The latter being governed by the angle, which an original plane makes with the centre of the picture ; for a line, from the eye, drawn perpendicular to the vanishing line of that inclined plane, is called the distance of the said vanishing line. See this further explained under PER G SPECTIVE. DISTEMPER. In painting, is a kind of size painting. See PAINTING. DODECAGON, a regular poligon of 12 equal sides and angles. DODECAHEDRON, is one of the regular bodies, com prehended under 12 equal sides, each of which is a pentagode. DOME, a spherical roof. This term amongst uphol sterers is used without regard to the difference of the plan, 198 DOO when they apply it to the figure of a tester or roof of a bed. They should, however, be distinguished by their plans ; as a hip-dome, signifies one raised from a square tester lath ; an octagon dome, from a tester lath of a regular octagon ; a poligonal dome may signify at plea sure, that it is raised from a tester of more or less sides than eight, but not from four ; and a spherical dome, whose plan is a circle. Concerning the sections of these domes, and of testers in general-see TESTER . DOOR. In architecture, is an aperture in the walls of a building, to give entrance into the front of it. It is an excellence in the art of building to have as few doors as possible, and to avoid placing them too near the angles of a wall. In the internal ordonance of an house the doors should face each other if possible, and especially those at the extremities of a building, that the whole length of it may be viewed at once. The general proportion of doors is to assign, at least, twice its width to the height ; but in width should never be less than 3 feet, and from 3 to 4, according to the magnitude and grandeur of the buildings. In cabinet work these rules are not observable. But no door ought tobe less than the diagonal of the square of its width, except there be some absolute cause for departing from this rule. Doors are variously made by cabinet- makers ; some are framed together, and have pannels ploughed in ; and others are rabbeted in with a bead mitered round to keep them in. Doors of a small size are glued up in the solid, and sometimes clamped, square, or mitered. In wardrobe doors, great care should be taken to have the stuff dry, as they have a considerable draught in their shrinking, and are apt to warp the frames in a manner not easily repaired ; to avoid which it is commendable to let the pannels stand a DOV 199 ? oft ea na ou t th of 125. } pol 2 rea •to · DA quarter of an inch within the frame, and fix them dry in by a bead. Round the inner edge of the door frames may be a black line to cover the edge of the frame standing before the pannels, which, when polished with the mahogany, looks well. The doors of wardrobes should be left half an eighth of an inch over, i . e. on each side ; as in time they will shrink, so as to require them to be hinged further in, that the astragal may cover, which ought always to be brass in this piece of furniture. Doors for cabinets and commodes, are according to modern taste, framed with a rabbet left, to which green or other silk is fixed after they are wired by the persons who work it. Doors for bookcases- see plates 21 , 22. In the de signs of plate 21 , there can be no difficulty in glazing any of those, except No. 5, which is done away when it is observed that the middle part is divided by a bar into two, and the glass is intended to be fit square in behind the diamond work, so that there will be no internal angle, which will never do for glass- cutting. In plate 22, No. 10, there will be an internal angle indeed, but it is so flat that I think it may be managed, or if not the glass may have a joint up the middle of the diamond. No. 12 must have the middle glass to run all the length, or otherwise a bar must be added to the centre. DOVE-TAILING. Amongst cabinet- makers is much used, and is an art by which they join drawers of every description together in the neatest and most effectual manner that can be devised. Dove-talling is distinguished by three classes . First, the common, shews the dove-tailing on one side. The second is lap dove-tailing, which entirely hides it, but shews a joint at the end of any thing as if veneered. The third is termed miter dove-tail ing, which not only hides the dove-tailing, but brings 200 DRA the front and ends of any piece of work to a close joint in the angle as a plain miter does. DRAPERY, as used by artists , signifies the clothing of a figure, but by upholsterers is applied to the dressy part of beds and window curtains, and is suspended to the tester ofthe former, and the lath of the latter. In the art of painting good drapery is of great conse sequence, and such it is in upholstery work; as there seems to be no article in that branch more eagerly sought after. It has already been turned into so many shapes, that it is become quite a difficult task to produce any thing novel. Under the term WINDOW CURTAIN, I have given some specimens, which are left to thejudgment of the candid upholsterer to decide whether they be new. DRAWER. Amongst cabinet-makers, is used to denote any kind of common chests, containing plain drawers. Drawers are always dove- tailed together, but are made some have a muntin to variously in other respects : divide the bottom into two lengths, so that thinner wainscot may serve, and to prevent the joints from giving way. Slips are sometimes glued on the inside of drawers, and plained to receive the bottom, which is the best method for preventing drawer bottoms from splitting, as is too often the case when they are confined by a rabbet, and the slip is glued down at the under side . Small drawers for secretaries and bureaus are best made by ploughing a dove-tail groove in their sides to receive the bottom ; there being an objection or two against rabbeting them in ; as in this way the drawer bottom frequently loosens and scrapes against the par tition on which it runs ; but in the dovetail grove, which is performed by a plane, the bottom is secured from falling down, and is kept about the thickness of a shil ling clear of the partition. DRA 201 joint

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mart the mary dve IN, mer new. note vers nade nb nnel ] 10 [ ide ch DE 1 bes 13 : 8 = TO ver 1. ch DIA DRAWING. Strictly speaking, is the delineation of all manner of objects, upon a plain surface by means of lines, suitable to the objects represented. The art of drawing is extensive, as it includes every thing of nature and art, and consequently requires long experience and study to be even a tolerable proficient in every branch of it. The branches of drawing connected with cabinet work are geometrical, architectural, and perspective drawing, which see under DRAWING in Supplement. DRAWING-ROOM. The chief apartment of a noble, or genteel house, to which it is usual for company to draw to after dinner, and in which formal visits are paid. In these rooms the most elegant furniture is requisite, as they are for the reception of persons of the highest rank. J The proportion of a good drawing-room should be in length, at least, equal to the diagonal of the square of its width, and the height equal to its width. See FUR NISH. The furniture used in a drawing-room are sofas, chairs to match, a commode, pier tables, elegant fire-screens, large glasses, figures with lights in their hands, and bronzes with lights on the cap of the chimney piece, or on the pier tables and commodes, and sometimes a mirror with lights fixed at the end of the room, or the side, as maybest suit for the reflection or perspective representation ofthe room, on the surface of the mirror. See MIRROR and FURNISH. DRAWING-ROOM CHAIRS, should always be the produce of studied elegance, though it is extremely difficult to attain to any thing really novel. If those who expect the purest novelty in such compositions, would but sit down and make a trial themselves, it would teach them better how to exercise candour when they see designs of this kind. ! 202 DRE How far I have succeeded in my attempt of this kind, in plates 45 and 46, I leave with the opinion of real judges. DRESSING CHEST. Is a small case of drawers, con taining four drawers in height, the uppermost of which is divided into conveniencies for dressing ; hence the name dressing-chest. Or sometimes the top is hinged, and made to rise with a quadrant, and the dressing part is fixed in a well at the top, and not in the drawer ; in which case, a glass is usually hinged to the under side of the top, with a foot to keep it to any position ; and there is sometimes a knee hole in the front, but fre quently none, when such dressing chests are used by persons who stand to dress. But if they sit to dress, there must either be a dreffing drawer to draw out, or a knee hole in the front when the dressing part is in a well under the top. The dressing chest, if to use standing, may be 3 feet high, and 3 feet 3 long, or 3 feet by 20 wide ; but if there be a knee hole in the front, it must be from 3 feet 6 to 4 feet long, and 32 inches high to the dressing part for sitting. DRESSING TABLE. Is a table so constructed as to accommodate a gentleman or lady with conveni encies for dressing-see plate 40, which is for a lady, and is , I presume, so distinct in its parts, as to require no explanation. To a country workman it may how ever be necessary to observe, that under the top is a strong rail not seen in the drawing, which is tenoned into the two standards, binding them together. See X SOFA TABLE. DRESSING GLASS . Of this piece of furniture there are various species . Some are fixed to a box containing three drawers, about 3 inches deep, standing either upon small brackets, or knobs for feet. The glass part is DUM 203 suspended in the centre, between two upright or curved standards, and turns to any position. The sizes of these dressing boxes run from 22 to 28 inches in length ; and when they are serpentine in front, they are in width from 10 to 12 inches . -See also HORSE or SCREEN DRESSING GLASSES, and the term GLASS, where we have given the general size of glasses correctly, as ma nufactured at the British House, Blackfriars Bridge. DUMB-WAITER, amongst cabinet-makers, is a useful piece of furniture, to serve in some respects the place of a waiter, whence it is so named. There are different kinds of these waiters, but they are all made of maho gany, and are intended for the use of the dining parlour, on which to place glasses of wine, and plates, both clean, and such as have been used. See plate 43. NI. is one partly from the French taste, on the top of which, where the glasses are represented, is a slab of thin marble, which not only keeps cleaner, and looks neater than mahogany, but also tends to keep the wine cool, when a bottle for present use is placed upon it. The shelves below are for plates and a knife tray. The holes for the decanters have cases of tin fit into them, and are japanned white, which shews through the front pannel in the rail, and makes it look lighter. N° 2. The top waiter is for glasses, and a bottle, and the lower for plates, or decanters and tumbler glasses, and the drawers that are shewn open, or partly drawn out, are for knives, and have a tin case to fit loose in, and japanned white ; so have the plate trays within the ballusters. These are easily taken out, and may be cleaned and replaced when necessary. And the workman must observe, that the waiters turn round on the pillars ; for the under pillar has a beech nut let into it , and the upper part of it screws itself home into it, so as to admit the waiter to turn. The upper waiter is fixed to the pillar, by a round 204 EBO block at the underside screwed to it, which, having a washer turned into it, receives a screw head before the block is fixed to, and then it screws into a nut as before. The plate trays ought to be 11 inches diameter in the clear, and the opening for the hand 4 inches. There is aturned astrigal for the top rail and the balluster. E EASEL pieces, amongst painters, such small pieces, either portraits or landscapes, as are painted on the easel, ì. ¿. the frames whereon the canvas is laid. They are thus called, to distinguish them from larger pictures drawn on walls, ceilings, &c. EAVES, in architecture, the margin or edge of the roof of a house, being the lowest tiles, slates, or the like, that hang over the walls, to throw off water to a distance from the foundation. EBONY-WOOD, is of a hard and heavy quality, sus ceptable of a fine polish . There are divers kinds of ebony ; the most common amongst us are black, red, and green, and are all of them the product of Mada gascar, in the East Indies. The best ebony is of a jet black, free of veins and rind. The trees of this wood are very bushy, its leaves are smooth, and of a fine green. Beneath its bark is a white blea about 2 inches thick ; all beneath which, to the heart, is a deep green, ap proaching towards a black, though sometimes streaked with yellow veins. The black ebony is not at present so much in use as it formerly was, since there have been discovered so many ways of giving other hard woods a black colour. Hence pear tree, and other close grained woods, have sometimes passed for ebony, by staining ELM 205 ܐ،ܘ chu 20 ro like Ce of 1. Lan sed 1# 62 ed og them black. This some do by a few washes of a hot, decoction of galls, and when dry, adding writing ink, polishing it with a stiff brush, and a little hot wax. ECHINUS, in architecture, is the quarter round or ovalo in the Ionic, and Composite capitals, so called, Exivos, echinus, a chesnut, because the eggs usually cut in theechinus, seem to be enclosed in something, like a chesnut cut open. ELLIPSIS, in geometry, is one of the conic sections, properly called an oval. Its figure is bounded by a re gular curve line, returning into itself. The longest diameter of an ellipsis, is called the transverse, and the shortest the conjugate. ELM. Of this useful wood there are said to be three species. The first, or common elm, is with leaves doubly sawed, and unequal at the base. The second, with leaves equally sawed, and unequal at the base. The third, with leaves equally sawed, and equal at the base. The first species is a native of this and most other countries in Europe ; the second grows naturally in Virginia ; and the third in Siberia. The elm tree, says Mr. Emmerick, " grows rapidly, and to a great size. It thrives in a wet soil, and may be produced either from the seed or the plant. Its seed is ripe in the latter end of July, or the beginning ofAugust ; and if sown immediately, will raise a plant a foot high the same year, which is the case with no other tree in Europe. " It is said to be useful in that part of mill work which lies under water, for in this situation it hardens to a great degree. Either extreme wet or dryness seems to suit this wood-but is fit for neither alternately. In the country, this wood, is used for chairs instead of beech. 206 EYE EMBOSSING, in sculpture, is the cutting of works in relievos. It is called embossing, particularly on account of the sculptures rising above the surface whereon it is cut. ENDECAGON, a figure, in geometry, having eleven angles, and consequently as many sides. ENNEAGON, a figure of nine angles and sides. ENTABLATURE, in architecture, is that part of an order which is above the capital, and consists , 1st . of the architrave ; 2d. the frieze ; and 3d. the cornice. For the proportions of the several entablatures of the fire orders, see plates 30, 31 , 32 , 33 , 34, EPICYCLOID, is a curve generated by the revolution of a point of the periphery of a circle, along the convex or concave surface of another circle. --- EPISTYLE, in ancient architecture, a term used by the Greeks, for what we call architrave . EQUAL, is a term of relation between two or more bodies ofthe same magnitude, quantity or quality. Equal circles, are those whose diameters are equal, Equal angles, are those whose sides are inclined alike to each other, or that are measured by similar parts of their circles. EQUILATERAL, a term applied to any thing whose sides are equal ; but is usually spoken of triangles, whose sides are all of an equal length. EUSTYLE, in architecture, a sort of building in which the pillars are placed at the most convenient distance one from another; the intercolumniations being just two diameters and a quarter, except those in the centre of the front and flank, which are allowed three diameters. EYE, in architecture, signifies any round window made in the tympan of the pediment. EYE of the volute. See VOLUTE. EYE, in perspective, is the point of sight, or the point D FEA 207 in which the spectator views any object ; from which point, if a line be drawn perpendicular to the plane of the picture, the intersection of that line with the said plane, is called the centre of the picture. F FABRIC, in general, denotes the structure or construction of any thing ; but particularly of buildings, as a church, hall, or house. FACIA, in architecture, is a broad flat member, com monly applied to the principal divisions of an architravę. The Corinthian architrave has three facias, and the Composite sometimes three, and at others two. The Ionic two facias, and the Doric and Tuscan one each. The term facia is also used amongst bedftead makers, to denote that part of the tester lath to which the bed cornice is fixed. The facia is usually made about 3 or 2 inches wide, of thin deal. To the upper edge of this, is glued a slip of an inch broad, and a quarter thick. This being mitered round the tester, they fix the cornice to it with iron plates and buttons, so that the cornice may easily be taken off at any time. As the facia thus managed, leaves a space between it and the cornice, it serves as a rabbet to which the valence is tacked.. FEATHER, a general name for the covering of birds. Feathers make a considerable article in commerce, particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, peacock, goose, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, and for beds. Geese are plucked in some parts of Great Britain five times in a year, which in the cold season sometimes proves fatal to them. Those feathers which are brought from Somersetshire are esteemed the best, and those from Ireland the worst. 208 FES Eider-down is imported from Denmark ; the ducks which supply it being inhabitants of Hudson's bay, Greenland. Ireland, and Norway. Our own islands west of Scat land breed numbers of these birds, which turn out a pro fitable branch of trade to the poor inhabitants, Hudson's bay also furnishes us with feathers, supposed to be of the goose kind. Swan down is brought from Dantzic, whence also we have large quantities of cock and hen feathers, which are sometimes mixed with goose feathers, and basely sold for pure goose feathers, Several very imposing arts are practised by brokers and dealers in feathers, which the stranger and fair trader ought to be aware of. The live feathers are the best and lightest, and which are of an elastic nature, so that a bed pressed down with the hand when filled with good feathers, will rise up to its place again. The method of curing feathers is to spread them oper in a room exposed to the sun, and when they are thoroughly dried, to put them in bags, and beat them with long poles to cleanse them from dirt, before they are filled into the tick . --- See also FEATHER, in Supple ment. FESTOON. In architecture, consists of a string of flowers, fruits, and leaves tied together, and increasing in substance towards the middle of the swag or festoon, They are chiefly used in friezes and other vacant places. Festoons seem to have had their origin fromthe practice and customs of the pagans, who placed such clus ters of flowers on or over the doors of their temples at the time of festivals, and also over the doors of their private houses. Festoon window curtains, amongst upholsterers, are those which draw up by pullies, and hang down in a swag. These curtains are still in use in bed rooms, not FIG 209 withstanding the general introduction of the French rod curtains in most genteel houses. A festoon window curtain, consists generally of three pulls, but when a window is extensive they have four or five. According to the number of pulls, so must the window lath be pullied. Such as have three they set out as follows : take 4 inches and an half for the distance of the pullies off each end ofthe lath, then find the centre, and put the pullies to one side; next to the draw end, equal to their width, that the lines which pass over them may be directed to the right divisions of the curtain. At the draw end there must be three pullies placed an inch and a half from the end. Towards the centre from these is a pully 4 inches from the end, measuring from that side of the pully through which the line passes, and thus it must be clear that there will be three pulls, and two of the lines will be 4 inches off the end of the curtain, and the other in the centre. If the lath have five pulls, then it will require four pullies more to be placed in equal divisions on the length of the lath, and for these two there must be two answerable to them at the draw end, so that it will re quire five pullies in the width of the lath, fixed as before. FIELD BED. See CAMP BED, page 123. FIGURE, is the surface or terminating extremes of a body. In geometry there are rectilineal figures, Curvelial and mixed figures. In painting and drawing, the term generally applies to representations of the human body. A correct know ledge of figure drawing is in some degree dependent upon skill in the anatomy of the human structure, par ticularly of the bones and muscles. On these the dis position of the contour depends, and therefore muſt be attended to by those who would sufficiently qualify P FLO themselves for figure drawing. See the term DRAWING in Supplement. FIRE-SCREEN. FISHING-STOOL. See SCREENS. A kind of triangular seat which folds up, and is therefore portable, and used in angling. The legs of a fishing-stool are joined together in the manner of the camp table, plate 8 ; and when the legs are open, they are bound by girth-webbing, which serves as a The spread of the seat is about seat. 210 14 inches, and one of the legs is longer than the other two, serving as a stick or handle to carry it by. FISHSKIN. The skin of dog- fish or sharks, used for cleaning up chair work, or in some parts of cabinet work. It should never be used wet, or in a damp state, as it tends to bring offthe prickles of the skin, and con sequently spoils it . FLOCK, a kind of wool, used by upholsterers for mate trasses. FLOOR. In architecture, is that part of a room whereon we walk. Floors are of different sorts, some of earth, stone, and wood. Floors used in plain country-houses, are made sometimes of a composition of lime and coal-ashes, with a quantity of loamy clay, mixed and tempered together with water. And after working it well to gether, it should lie a week or ten days, that it may mellow; after this it should be tempered over again, with as much water only as may render it tough by working. Having done this, it is to be thrown up into a heap again for a few days, and tempered again, as before, when it is used, The ground of the floor being levelled, lay on this composition about 3 inches thick, smoothing it with a trowel ; such floors should be laid in a hot season. Ox FLO 211 blood and fine clay tempered together as above, is also recommended by some as a durable floor for such purposes. Boarded floors should never be laid for good at first, and require to be of the best deals ; and when a building is in contemplation these ought to be procured before any other article, and should be plained over, and placed so as to dry. There are three methods by which floors are laid. First, with plain jointed edges, and nailed down. Second, jointing and ploughing the edges to receive a wainscot tongue about an inch broad, and a bare quarter thick, by which the dust is prevented from falling through, in cases where there is no cieling. These maybe nailed at every set board at the edge, so that no nails be seen. Third, when they are laid with douwells of oak- board into the edge, and every one set as they are laid. In this method the edge of the board may be fixed down to the joints by dove-tail pieces of wainscot, let in half an inch on to the edge of the board, and rather more into joists. This is a troublesome but most effectual method, and by a little practice may be done with greater facility, than is at first apprehended, The ancient floors of a good quality, were generally made of oak boards, and very curiously laid, by forking the ends together in large floors, where more than one length was wanted ; such floors were frequently polished bright, and a baize thrown partly over them to keep them clean, and to tread upon. But since the introduction of carpets, fitted all over the floor of a room, the nicety of flooring anciently practised in the best houses, is now laid aside. FLUTES, or fluting, amongst architects, cabinet makers, and upholsterers. In an architectural sense, it applies to the manner of ornamenting the shafts of columns. The Tuscan column is never fluted, and the Doric is 212 FOO often executed plain also ; but in a full Doric Order, It should be fluted. The flutes of this order, are distin guished from all the other, by being shallow, and brought nearly to a sharp edge, so that there is scarcely any fillet. The shaft contains twenty or twenty-five of these ; and observe, that a flute must be in the centre of the shaft upon each quarter. The depth of the flute is found by taking the width of it, with the compasses, and intersecting an arch, which will give the centre. To find the flutes for this order, describe a quadrant ofa circle, whose radius must be the simi-diameter ofthe inferior diameter of the column. Divide it into twelve equal parts, and take one of these for half the flute in the centre, on each quarter ; then the remaining ten will be for the five whole flutes, upon each quarter, exclusive of the centre flutes, which make the whole number twenty-four. " The fluitings of the other orders, are the same in num ber, but have a fillet between each one- third of the flute, and therefore the quadrant of the lower diameter must be divided into twenty-four equal parts, and a part and a half must be given to the half flute each way on the centre, and then one for the fillet, and three for the flutes alternately ; so that upon each quarter there will be five whole flutes, and two halves, with six fillets. See FLUTE, in Supplement, FOLIAGE. - See FOLIAGE, in Supplement. FOLIATING looking glasses. -See LOOKING GLASS. FOOT-STOOL, a small stool to rest the foot upon. These are generally stuffed with hair, and covered with some kind of needle-work. The frame of the stool is sometimes oval, at others square, or of an octagon shape, with turned legs mostly, as these are lighter than any other. The sizes are various ; but the height of the frame, without the stuffing, runs about 6 or 6 inches, - FRE 213 and the length from 9 to a foot, and from 7 to 8 inches wide. FOUNDATION. -See BUILDING. FOOT, in measure, makes 12 inches, according to the common way of dividing it. Probably the measure re ceived this name from the foot of a stout man, which is about a foot long. If our English foot be divided into 1000, the French foot will be 1068, the Spanish 1001 , the Venetian 1162, the Roman 967. A foot square contains 144 superficial inches, and a cubic foot 1728 , the former being multiplied by 12. AFOUR-POST BED, is a name for all such as are used in common lodging rooms, that have feet and head posts. See plate 17. FRENCH BED. see plate 18 , so named, not from having ever seen any of theirs shaped in this manner, but on account of its being after their style of dress. It would have been proper if I could have shewn a geometrical elevation of the end of this bed, for the sake of illustrating the manner in which it should be framed ; but being so confined in the small compass of this work, and the plates of this size being so expensive, the work man must be satisfied, with a description as plain as I can make it. The tester of this bed is an arch some what less than a simicircle, but framed straight across the head and feet by rails joining the two side arches, the same as in a tent or field bedstead. This tester is then fixed to the pillars by tenons, which have a screw let into them, the same as in the bottom frame of a common bed, the heads of which are easily covered by an orna ment, as is the case at the bottom frame of this design, where the human head is planted on by means of a key, which fastens into a thin plate of iron, with a hole to receive it ; and under the diamond ornament at the

1. 214

FRI top of the pedestal, is another screw which enters into the end framing, which must be made separate from the pedestals, that the foot and head may be stuffed, in the manner of the design, and put together at pleasure. The cornice has a facia to which it is fixed by irons, and may be taken off occasionally. And observe, that the cornice runs across both head and foot, and is fixed to it in the same manner as the arched cornices of the sides. The curtains are first tacked against the facia, which, for this purpose, forms two rabbets, one for the curtains, and the other for the drapery. The curtains may either be drawn up by pullies, or only tied to the top of the pedestals by lines and tassels. Lastly, the ground work of the valence is what the upholsterers term fluted, and afterwards the drapery is formed upon it, which, for sake of contrast, may be of a different colour. In this drapery I have the honor of pleasing the upholsterers, who consider it as quite novel ; ofwhich I have had repeated testimonies. FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls, so as to endure the weather. -See PAINTING. FRET, in architecture, a kind of knot or ornament, con sisting of two fillets variously interlaced. Frets are used to fill up and enrich flat empty spaces. Frets were much introduced into cabinet work anciently, but have been laid aside many years since. At pre sent, however, we seem to incline to them again, but with a material difference, the ancient frets being cut out of thin mahogany, and the modern cast in brass, which is doubtless much to the advantage of the work, as they are both durable and pleasing to the eye. FRINGE, an ornament of worked silk or worfied, much in use amongst upholsterers, who introduce it occasionally to bed furniture, and window curtains. The French FUR 215 have begun to use fringe at the bottom of their chair backs. There is a kind of net fringe made in France, which looks well, somewhat like that in the French bed. FRIZE, or frieze, in architecture, is a part of the enta blature.. The ancients called it Zeophorus wogopos, because it was usually enriched with figures of animals ; and our term frieze has a similar origin, from Phrygio, an em broiderer being, commonly adorned with sculpture in basso relievo, imitating embroidery. FRIZE, also signifies, a kind of woollen cloth or ſtuff for winter wear, being frized or knapt on one side ; whence probably it derived its name. FRONTISPIECE, in architecture, the principal face of the building. FRUSTRUM, in geometry, a piece cut off and separated from a body. Thus the fruftrum of a pyramid, or cone, is a part or piece of it cut off, usually by a plane, pa rallel to the base. FURNISH, amongst cabinet makers and upholsterers, is generally applied to the act of supplying a house with suitable furniture. When a house is said to be furnished, it conveys the idea of its being fitted up with every ne cessary, both useful and ornamental. In furnishing a good house for a person of rank, it requires some taſte and judgment, that each apartment may have such pieces as is most agrecable to the appropriate use of the room. And particular regard is to be paid to the quality of those who order a house to be furnished, when such order is left to thejudgment ofthe upholsterers ; and when any gentleman is so vain and ambitious as to order the furnishing of his house in a style superior to his fortune , and rank, it will be prudent in an upholsterer, by some 216 FUR gentle hints, to direct his choice to a more moderate plan. There is certainly something of sentiment expressed in the manner of furnishing a house, as well as in per sonal dress and equipage ; particularly so in the appearance of some apartments. And it is the business of an up holsterer not to recommend any thing that would offend the known sentiments of his employer, when virtue and morality are not the queftion, but mere indifferent opinion. But it is to be lamented, that both the pictures and prints of some gentlemen are but too sure indications of their looseness of principle ; as to virtue and morality, though these ought to be the principal ornaments of hu man life, which in no character shines more becomingly than in the gentleman of rank. The kitchen, the hall, the dining parlour, the anti room , the drawing room, the library, the breakfast room, the music room, the gallery of paintings, the bed room and dressing apartments, ought to have their proper suits of furniture, and to be finished in a style, that will at once shew, to a competent judge, the place they are destined for. The library should be furnished in imitation of the antiques ; and such prints as are hung in the walls ought to be memorials of learning, and portraits of men of science and erudition. In the room or gallery of paintings, the best pictures should be placed in the most favourable situation , for a still light, which should come from above, not in a diffuse, but collected manner, that it may give the true effect ofthe picture, as intended by the painter. And if the shadow of the picture be from the right hand, the light should come to it from the left. The largest pic gures should be placed so high only as to bring their 1 FUR 217 fast the hat rrie, lace the ough en d cture fora t in 1 De true And the st pic their 5 spectator centers nearly as may be perpendicular to the eye of the . If this be not duly observed, it will occasion a distortion ofthe piece. In cases where, for want of room, a picture is required to be more elevated than its naturalheight, the piece should be hung so as to incline forward, by which means its centre will be brought nearer to a perpendicular to the eye. In small paintings, the distortion, occasioned by an improper height, is not sotaken apparent ; to remove the disadvantage, they are easily down to be viewed by hand. Observe, that pictures or prints, drawn to a high horizon, should be placed low, and those which have a low horizon, high ; and, as in such apartments, the paintings are the chief objects of the spectator's attention, there ought not to beanygaudy furniture to take off the eye, or destroy any of their effect . Hence, plain mahogany chairs of an antique caft, having seats of mahogany will prove the moft suitable. The music room may be conducted in a more gay ftyle; and the paintings or prints of the muses , and mafters of music , may consistently make a part offur nishing; and chairs and stools of a richer variety of colours may be admitted with propriety. As the entrance or hall of any well built house ought always to be expressive of the dignity of its possessor , so the furniture ought also to be designed in a manner adapted to inform the stranger or visitant where they are , every and what they may expect on a more general survey of apartment. ingto all the principal apartments , it should be furnished As the hall is a general , or ought to be a general open soasnotto be miftaken for the moft superb division of the ftructure, or where moblerperson who resides in it. they may expect to meet the The furniture of a 218 FUR hall should therefore be bold, massive, and simple. Yet noble in appearance, and introductory to the reft . The dining parlour must be furnished with nothing trifling, or which may seem unnecessary, it being ap propriated for the chief repast, and should not be en cumbered with any article that would seem to intrude on the accommodation of the guests. The large sideboard, inclosed or surrounded with Ionic pillars ; the handsome and extensive dining-table ; the respectable and substantial looking chairs ; the large face glass ; the family portraits ; the marble fire-places ; and the Wilton carpet ; are the furniture that should supply the dining- room. The drawing-room is to concentrate the elegance of the whole house, and is the highest display of richness of furniture. It being appropriated to the formal visits ofthe highest in rank, and nothing of a scientific nature should be introduced to take up the attention of any in dividual, from the general conversation that takes place on such occasions. Hence, the walls should be free of pictures, the tables not lined with books, nor the angles of the room filled with globes ; as the design of such meetings are not that each visitant should turn to his favourite study, but to contribute his part towards the amusement of the whole company. The grandeur then introduced into the drawing-room is not to be considered, as the ostentatious parade of its proprietor, but the respect he pays to the rank of his visitants. The anti-room, is an introduction to the drawing room, and partakes of the elegance of the apartment to which it leads, serving as a place of repose before the general intercourse be effected in the whole company. Here may be placed a number of sofas of a second order wiih a piano-forte or harp, and other matters of amuse ment till the whole of the company be collected. FUS 219 cea angl SUCH O DIS s the urthe ider but rawing timento forethe ompany ndart famust beaufets The tea-room or breakfast-room, may abound with , painted chairs, flower-pot stands, hangingbook shelvesormoving libraries, and the walls maybe adorned with landscapes, and pieces of drawings, &c. and all the little things which are engaging to the juvenile mind. The lodgingroom admits of furniture simply neces sary, but light in appearance, and should include such pieces as are necessary for the accidental occasions of books the night. Here should be a small book shelf with such as should tend to promote our pious resignation of body and soul to the care of the great author of the and divine superintendant of human hep universe, piness. The dressing-room exhibits the toilet table and com mode, with all the little affairs requisite to dress, as bason-stands, stools, glasses, and boxes with all the innocent trifles of youth, with which I shall close these hints on the nature of furnishing a house, taking it for granted, that enough has been said to lead to the proper management of such apartments as are not men tioned in this cursory view ofthe whole. FUSTIAN, kind of cotton stuff-right fustians should be made of cotton -yarn , both woof and warp

but

a great many are made , the warp of which is flax , or even hemp. There are fustians made of several kinds, without wide, narrow, fine, coarse ; with shag or knap, or it. a FUSTICK, a hard yellow wood , that grows in all the Caribbee Islands. It is used in dying yellow, and was introduced in cabinet work above twenty years since ; found to turn by the air and heat of the sun to adead brownish hue, it was laid aside as unfit for but asit was such purposes. 220 GAT

G GABLE, or gable end of a house, is that part which is from the cave to the top of the roof, of a triangularform, according to the pitch of the roof. GALLERY. In architecture, is a covered place in a house, much longer than broad, and is usually on the wings of a building, serving to walk in. According to Palladio, their length ought to be at least five times the breadth, but not to exceed eight. GAMBOGE. " Is a concreted-vegetable juice, partly of a gummy and partly of a resinous nature. It is chiefly brought to us in large cakes or rolls from Cam baga in the East Indies. The best sort is of a deep yellow or orange colour ; it has no smell and very little taste, unless kept in the mouth for some time, when it impresses a slight sense of acrimony. It immediately communicates to spirit of wine a bright golden colour, and almost entirely dissolves in it ." Brit. Encyclop. This pigment makes a beautiful yellow colour in water, and may easily be deepened with a little lake, to form à shade with. GARLAND. A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. It also denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits, and leaves intermixed, anciently much used at the gates of temples, where solemn feast and re joicings were held, and at triumphal arches. GATE. In architecture, a large door, leading or giving entrance into a city, town, castle, palace, or other con siderable building. The proportion for entrance gates for coaches or waggons should be from 9 to 12 feet, and their height half their width more. GEO 221 B11 ce Dire 0 ate Tour ater, run 3 athers ead in uts f נעת ande giving erco $ GENERATING-LINE, or figure in geometry, is that, which byits motion or resolution produces any other figure, both plain or solid . Thus a right line, moved any wayparallel to itself, generates a parallelogram ; and a right line moved round a point in such a plan, with one end fastened in that point, generates a circle ; and if this semi-circle be in a place perpendicular to it, and caused to make an entire revolution on that point, it will produce a hemisphere. GENEROSITY. Is represented in painting by a virgin ofamiable appearance, clothed in a mantle of gold gause, leaning her left hand upon a lions head, holding in her right, lifted up, chains of pearl and precious stones, in dicating her intentions of making presents. As gene rosityis generally, if not always accompanied with courage, so this virtue is properly represented by her youth; her naked arm, signifies that it is disinterested ; and the lion, the courage that is inspired by this virtue. GENIUS. denote Is represented by a naked child, of a smiling countenance, having a garland of poppy on his head, ears ofcorn in one hand, and a branch of grapes in the other. His smiling countenance, and the grapes the pleasure that is taken in the pursuit of that science, or liberal art for which youth have a genius . The supposed that every human being had a genius, ancients that is, a deity to influence them , or give them a turn of mindto some particular pursuit for general usefulness. There seems to be some foundation for supposing that theythus expressed their belief of divine providence in the disposal of all oftheunity of themen ; but they did it at the expence nature of God, for he is one only GEOGRAPHY and true,though his gifts to man be infinitely various. . Is represented by an aged woman, in an earthcoloured garment , and a terrestrial globe at her 922 GIL

feet. The compasses at her right hand, denotes that she measures the globe ; and the square in her left, that she does it with just proportion . Her old age, signifies the antiquity of this art, which had its origin in Egypt, as early as the times of Abraham. GEOMETRY. From you , a compound of genes ge, the earth, and sтpox metron, to measure, originally sig nified the art of measuring the earth , or any distances or dimensions on or within it ; but is now used for the science of extension, abstractly considered without any regard to matter. This science had its rise amongst the Egyptians, who were, in a manner, compelled to invent it to remedy the confusion which generally happened in their lands from the inundations of the river Nile, which carried away all boundaries, and effaced all the limits of their possessions. Thus this invention, which at first consisted only in measuring the lands, that every person might have what belonged to him ; was called geometry, and it is pro bable, that the draughts and schemes which they were annually compelled to make, helped them to discover many excellent properties of these figures ; which specu lations continued to be gradually improved. For DRAW ING in GEOMETRY, sce Supplement under DRAWING. GILDING. The art of spreading or covering thin gold over any substance. In the language of the old testa ment, overlaying with gold in many parts of Solomon's temple, appear to have been what we call gilding. The ancients however, seem to have been imperfect in their skill of gilding, as it appears that they could not make it endure external violence of weather. They had not dis covered the manner of gilding in oil as we have ; hence all their gilding was contined to internal works, and laid on by means of size and a glutinous erath, which they used for that purpose. GIL 22 In gildingin oil, which is chiefly used in the country, being in all cases the most durable, care must be taken to lay an even foundation by white lead, ground in lin seed oil and gold litherage , which is fittest for the pur pose, when the oil and litheridge are previously boiled and strained through some cloth, to cleanse it from all the dirt and gross particles to which this mixture is subject. Having grond the white lead with this oil, it maybe brought to a proper temper by spirits of turpentine, and then laid upon the surface to be gilded, which if it have not been already painted, may require two coats, before the gold size be laid on. If this preparation be not broughtsmooth, it is in vain to expect good work. The sizes that are used in this kind of gilding, may be purchased at the colour shops ; and if the work require to be quick done, japanner's gold size must be used, as it willbe ready for gilding in about four hours or less; but where a considerable quantity is required to be done at one time, as in house work, it dries two quick, and it istherefore requisite to employthe house painter's gold size, which partakes more of the quality of the fat oil thantheother, but frequentlyrequires twenty-four hours tobeinastate fit for laying on the gold; but as it dries 60 gradually, it affords an opportunity of doing propor tionably more together ; and this is not the only advan tage, forwherethe size can be kept from all duft, and if it be of a good quality , the longer it is in drying , the greater luster in gilding will be produced

but

then it mustbe kept free from any kind of handling or touch , harden. Gold size may ra considerable time before this kind of gold size will be brought to dry to any time for bya judicious admixture of copal varnish and spirits of turpentine , to suit the nature of the work . The general 224 GIL conftituent parts of gold sizes, consists of producing fine fat oil, which is of fine linseed oil exposed to the sun's heat in summer, by which it is bleached and cleared from those greasy and viced particles, which prevent oils from drying, and the paints, with which it is mixed, from bearing that lustre which they retain when mixed up with good oils . To this kind of oil is added Oxford ocher, and vermilion, or fine red lead ground fine as possible, and thus brought as near to the colour of gold as it will admit of, so that in cases where the gold leaf is not quite perfect , it may be less observable, and also that the gold may bethe better supported in its lustre and true colour, when the work is finished. The cleanings of the painter's pencils, in the turpentine pan, which settle to the bot tom, and incline to a ſtate of fatness the longer they are in reserve, is recommended by some gilders as a good size ; but as such size is more uncertain in its composi tion, they who only use a small portion of size, should buy it at the shops. - In gilding well, it requires great care to keep every article clean, and to find the size in a true state of tenacity for the reception of the gold. This may be known by the touch of the finger, which, if it slightly adhere to and bring away not the smallest degree of the size, it is in a proper condition for gilding. Those who are inex perienced in the art generally fall into the error of begin ning to work before it is sufficiently dry, being appre hensive that the gold will not adhere, except it be laid on when the size is clammy. But this is erring on the moſt pernicious side of the question ; for in this state it absorbs the gold, and the slightest pressure of the gold inlaying it on will ruffle the surface, and sometimes render it unfit for resizing till the priming be laid on again. Ifon the other hand the size be too dry, the only evil that at GIL 225 la her, بات Jeg col aine e be hey a g ompor She SVEIT at tends it is the trouble of resizing, which may in this, case help to make it bear a better lustre. When the gold is laid on, it may be observed, that the cotton wool, which is used in pressing it to , will pass pleasantly over the gilded part, which will be bright ; but if too wet, the cotton will leave hairs behind it, and seem to be retarded in its passage over the gold, which will look dull and unsatisfactory to the eye ofthe gilder, if a com petent judge of what his work ought to be. In taking the gold out of the book, it is best to tap the edge ofthe book with the knife which will shake the leaf out of its place, and the knife may then be put under it, and laid on to the gilding cushion , where, if it should chance be ruffled, blow upon the centre of the leaf, and in a per pendicular direction to the gold, and it will become even, when it may be cut to the size wanted, by holding the knife in a horizontal position, that the edges may touch the gold in every part at once. A gilder's tip must then be passed slightly over the face, to give a moisture to the hairs of the tip, which being pressed to the cut gold will bring it up, and the gold is thus applied to its place, which should be at the end of the work next to the gilder and his cushion, for then he covers the size as he ad vances, so that his stroke with the cotton in smoothing the gold is less liable to catch the size. If the work be exposed to the weather, and is not required to be very brilliant, it may be varnished with thin copal, so as not much to injure the look, and thus be made more secure from external pressure or violence. GILDING in water is more operous and tedious, except on glass, which is more simple in itself than oil gilding, but as connected with the occasional ornaments attend ing it, it is sometimes more troublesome. Gilding upon glass is much wanted in the present mode of mounting prints and drawings, by a black border round the inside Q 1 226 GIL of the frame parted with one or more gilt lines or narrow fillets, and sometimes with pannelings in the angles, when the print or drawing is an oval, and the frame is square. The glass for gilding should be of the best kind ; and being fit into the frame, the picture should be put in its place behind the glass, and turning it up ; ifit be inclosed in an oval, the glass must be marked with black or white paint on the line of the oval as a guide in blacking the glass, that it may be correctly laid on to suit the oval. And to shew the gilding more strikingly, a black line must first be drawn over the marks of paint on the outside. This line must be drawn by a hair pencil finely tempered in black varnish, or ASPHALTUM, which see, as correct as possible, it being the guide to the gold band, line, or fillet. The remaining part of the glass may then be blacked over, so as to leave a space for the gilding, according to its proposed width. The gilder may however proceed thus far by another method, which some prefer. Let him take thin paper, and trace the oval upon it as it appears on the paper ; then let him take red chalked paper, and having laid the black on without regard to the gold fillet, or border, he must lay on the red paper, and by laying on the thin paper on which the print was pencilled, and tracing it over with a point, the red chalk will leave the impres sion of the oval on the black, which, by a fine point, inust be cut through to the glass as correct as possible, and the black must be taken out, which may easily be done, if the black be mixed with hard varnish before it be laid on. Or a third method is, by laying on the gold first, and blacking it over, and when it is dry, trace the oval on the black as has been described ; and having taken away all the superfluous gold and black together, it is then blacked all over, and finished. GIL 227 2 3: Y! ALT gu P la ed1 jn The size used for this gilding is a small portion of isinglass dissolved by a gentle heat in perfectly fair water ; but so small a quantity is requisite, that the water only is nearly sufficient for the purpose ; for if the water be too strong of this glue, it will cause the gold to appear cloudy , or in dull spots . Take then this size, and with a hair pencil lay it on rather flowing, and with the tip lay on the gold, and blow it gently down, and having finished the first lay of gold, let the glass stand on an edge at a moderate distance from the fire, till it dry, which will be in a quarter or half an hour. But it must be noticed, that in laying on the gold leaf, no water must be left under the gold, but it must be blown out, as much as the nature of the case will admit of; or otherwise, when the cotton wool is applied to burnish it with, the gold will rub off. After thus burnishing, proceed to a second lay or coat of gold as at the first, which will cover all the defects of the first lay occasioned by burnishing, and having waited till this second coat be dry, burnish as before ; and if there be any defects of gold, such places must be repaired. Some recommend to have the work done three times over, but twice will dó as well, if carefully done. Lastly, when the gilding is dry, it must be secured by a coat of black, laid on with copal varnish, which may be done at pleasure, without the smallest danger of in juring the gold. WATER GILDING upon wood, is that generally termed burnished gold, and is only proper for internal works, and even in this situation requires much care to keep it from injury. As to lustre and effect , it has doubtless the advantage of oil gilding, but is attended with much more trouble and expence. The size used for burnished gold, made of the finest white parchment, made in quantities pro 228 GIL

portioned to the work to be gilded , for it will only keep a few days . The proportion of parchment is nearly a quarter of a pound to a quart of water, or rather more water , which will be boiled down to about half that quantity, and must then be strained through a cloth

and if after standing to cool there should still be a scum at the top or bottom , it should be pared off. Spanish white is then to be pounded , and sifted clear of hetero genious particles , and the size being dissolved over the fire , the whiting is poured into it , and stirred about by a wooden spatula , till it comes to the consistence of strong cream , which may just boil and no more , other wise the size will be injured . With this mixture , the work to be gilded must be covered 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , or 9 times, according to the nature of the work , and the quantum of whiting that may be taken off in preparing and smoothing it for the gold size . Observe , each coat of whiting must dry before another is laid on , and it is sometimes best to give the work a partial cleaning, at about half the number of coats, which will make it easier to execute when the whole number is laid on . After the work is finished in the number of coats , the first thing is to clean the squares by a small iron rake made for the purpose

in doing which

, the surface of the whiting should be gently damped , that the superfluous substance may easily come away without tearing the whole from the wood . In this operation files , pumice stone, and glass paper, are variously applied to recover the out-line of the mouldings , and to give each surface a necessary smoothness to receive the gold size

and to

effect this completely , it is usual to give the whole a water polish , by a rag dipt in water , and passed gently over the whole , so as not to wear down the whiting too much . Take then pipe clay, which in London may be bought EC02門" GIL 229 A IL 9 qu arig ch readyfor the purpose ; and they who gild in the country may send for this and the gold size, which will keep a considerable time, and may at any time be softened by moisture. In using this pipe clay, it must be diluted with the parchment size made a little weaker, and laid once over the work. With the same size mix yellow ochre, and go once over the whole. This coat is for the purpose of such parts of the carving or edges of mouldings as require no gold. The gold size is next to be attended to, which may be compounded ofthe following ingredients : Take one pound of fine bole in fine powder, or pound it upon a stone, and grind it fine, with clean water, as thick as it will work. With this grind 2 ounces of black lead, then add 2 scruples of oil of olives, and 1 of bees wax, which inuft be all united in one mass, and brought to the con sistency of a thick cream, by means of the strong size, and in a blood warm state laid twice over the work. Or it may be thus prepared : Take a pound and an half of tobacco pipe clay, half an ounce of red chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead, 40 drops of sweet oil, and 3 drams of pure tallow, grind the clay, chalk, and black lead, separately, very fine in fair water ; then mix them together, add the oil and tallow, and grind the whole to a due consistence. Lastly, take a weaker size with some ofthe bole thus prepared, and melt them over the fire, and proceedto give it the last coat ; but previous to this, every rough or knotty particle of the former coats must be smoothed. Proceed now to lay on the gold, which will require two or three different sized hair pencils. One large for covering the work with fair water, and another for pressing the gold gently down to its place, after the water is blown from underneath it. The cutting and management of the gold is the same as for oil gilding already described. Here, however, it will be proper to 230 GIL 1 B try the work, by only gilding a small part of the work 2 or 3 inches long, for proving whether it will burnish. If not, the size must be varied till it will. Whenthe work is ready for burnishing, is known by sounding the gilding with the burnisher ; and if the tone ofthe sound be clear, it is time to burnish, and if dull and heavy, the ground is yet too moift. The time ought to be carefully attended to, otherwise the burnishing will be more trou blesome, and will not have the desired effect. In gilding it is proper to observe such parts as are to be matted, that suitable relief may be given to the bur nished parts. Such contrasts adds much to the beauty ofthe work. In matting, some polish the parts before the gold is laid on, which gives it more smoothings, and afterwards size it over with the former parchment size weakened, and some simply pencil it over with size, and after it is dry, pass over it with fine cotton wool. Gilding paper is easily performed, as follows, though it will not burnish : Grind bole armoniack with rain water, and give one laying of it. When it is dry, take glair of eggs, and add to it a little sugar candy and gum water, which lay over the former ; and upon this, when it is dry enough, lay leaf gold, by means of a pencil and fair water. Gilding the edges of books. Take bole armoniack eight penny weights, sugar candy two penny weights, mix and grind them with glair of eggs, then on a bound book while it is in the press, and which has been coated on the edge with the glair of eggs and dried, lay on this bole size, and let it dry ; then rub it well, and polish it, and with fair water wet the edges of the book with a hair pencil, and immediately lay on the gold, pressing it down gently with cotton. In this state let it dry, and polish it with a burnishing tooth. GIL 231

Gilding on silk or linen. Take parchment size, such as has been described for burnished gold on wood, with which lay over the silk or cloth gently, that it may not sink through ; then mix and grind ceruse and verdegrease together, of each an equal quantity, mix them with copal varnish in a glazed vessel, which must simmer over a small fire. This size must be applied in the same manner with that already described for oil gilding. Gilding chairs. This branch of gilding is , in some respects, conducted differently from the others in oil and water already mentioned, though the principles of both are the same. The difference is chiefly in point of time, as the chair branch requires the utmoft dispatch, that the work may be kept clean, and quickly turned out of hand. Hence the japanners' gold size is of a composition that dries rapidly, and requires the gold to be laid on in the moſt expert and ready manner. And for this purpose, in narrow fillets , which it chiefly consists of, the leaves of gold may be cut off singly, and cut upon the cushion with the paper under it, and another blank leaf being laid over the gold, and turned over as the narrow slips ofgold are laid on, so that the tip is not wanted, and the work is executed with proportionably greater swiftness. And it is necessary to begin rather sooner in this than in the other oil gold size, on account of its drying quicker, andit need not be pressed down with cotton till the whole of the chair is covered, and then pass the cotton over the whole. All the japan part of the chair ought to be finished, before the gilding be entered upon, that the gold may not be diſturbed in handling, and not merely for this reason, but that the lines or fillets of gold may be trimmed up, by japanning the uneaven edges with a colour suitable to the ground, especially if the gilding be any part of it flowered work, for it is impossible to " 232 GIL gild the outlines so clean as to require no help by the pencil dipped in the ground colour ; and moreover, it should be noticed, that in some cases of small flower or leaf work, it is best to lay on the gold without regard to the outline, and afterwards draw upon the gold, and pick in the ground of the outline. In sizing over for the gold, it should be so coloured, as to diftinguish the sizing work from the ground of the chair ; for the size of itself bears no material colour. Alittle red lead, ver million, or ochre, will generally do ; or if for a dark ground, mix with the size a little white lead. The ja panners' gold size may be made by pulverizing gum animi and asphaltum, of each 1 ounce ; red lead, litharge of gold, and umbre, of each 1 ounce and a half, mixing them with a pound of linseed oil, and boiling them, ob serving to ftir them till the whole be incorporated, and appear, on growing cold, ofthe confiftence of tar. Strain the mixture through a flannel, and keep it ſtopped up in a bottle. Another more simple may be made of 1 pound of linseed oil, 4 ounces of gum animi ; powder the gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling oil. Let it continue to boil, till it be of the consistence of tar, and then strain it as before. In gilding chairs with burnished gold, it is not neces sary to make the operation so tedious as in picture or glass frame gilding ; for the chairs are usually primed with whiting, and the japan laid upon it, forms a base for the gold ; it is generally sufficient to give only a coat or two of the bole size, and then lay on the gold as in other works. The gold in chair work ought to be varnished to secure it, and the best varnish for this pur pose is copal, diluted a little with the spirit of turpentine, that it may dry quick, and be more transparent over the gold, which it injures very little when it is thoroughly dry. GLA 233 .Ative No, 201 16 at 1 CE T2

ng, lida質意 , ma em , ted, r. Sa appe made ; pow! oil. of t 1967 ture pr GLASS, a transparent , brittle , factious body , produced from sand melted in a strong fire , with fixed alkaline salts , lead, slugs , &c . till the whole become perfectly clear and fine . When glass was first invented, admits of much doubt . The firit glass -houses mentioned in his tory , were erected in the city of Tyre

and here was

the only ftaple of the manufacture for many ages . The sand which lay on the shore for half a mile round the mouth ofthe river Eolus , was peculiarly adapted to the making of glass , being of a neat and glittering quality

and the wide range of the Tyrian commerce gave an ample vent for this useful article. Glass , after it comes from the factory , goes into the hands of the grinder and silverer, that it may be com pleated for framing. Before they begin to grind, they bed the glass in plafter of Paris , spread upon a table made on purpose. They then take sand and water, and , with another glass of a smaller size, they rub it to a perfectly even surface, which then has the appearance of a smooth slate. Thenext operation is what they call smoothing , which is preparative to polifhing

to effect which

, they lay a wet blanket upon a ſtone table , and taking water and emery of different degrees of fineness , with another glass, as before in grinding , they skue it about till it is smooth , andthen proceed to polifh it . For this purpose they bed again into plafter of Paris , and take an oblong block of wood, covered with coarse blanket or lap, as they term it, charged with tripple , which is made of iron ore . This block has a stick fixed to it , the upper end of which is fastened to the floor above

and this stick giving way

as abow, it presses the block every way upon the glass , as it is moved backwards and forwards on its surface. Whenthey have done with this block they put to another, charged with putty , made from grain tin , with which they rub as before , and bring it to a fine transparent A 234 GLA , . ков poliſh ready for filvering . This last process, they term white lapping. They then prepare the glass for silver ing, by taking dry whiting, and with the hand rub it about the glass, to take off the dampness, and cleanse it from spots, that it may properly receive the quicksilver. On a table of stone, they lay a fheet of tin foil, which must be as large as the plate of glass ; and to make the quicksilver adhere to the foil, they first rub a small quantity of quicksilver, with the hand, over the foil to cleanse it. This they term quickening the foil. After this they pour on to the foil , a proper quantity of quick silver sufficient to cover all the foil and flow over the glass. Then they take clean cloths to clear the plate from all dust before they lay it over the silver, which they do by fhutting it over the edge of a paper doubled on one edge of the foil, till the glass comes to its due place upon the silver. This method prevents the air from being drawn in between the plate and the silver, which would prevent the silver from fixing. The glass is then pressed down to the quicksilver, by a number of lead weights, that the quicksilver may adhere to the glass, and the foil also. In this state it is to remain a few hours or days, according to the size of the glass. Aglass 18 by 30 inches, requires 5 or 6 hours, and one of 60 by 100, 5 or 6 days under the weights. And after the glass is turned over, it requires to lay a few days in a sloping direction, that the unfixed quicksilver may descend to one corner of the glass, and so fall off.

• } In repairing old glass, and silvering it again, it is as perfect as new, and in this respect has the advantage of every other repaired article, that I believe can be men tioned. When the glass requires to be polished, the expence of polishing is equal to the silvering . But if only white lapped, as before described, the expence is increased only one halfmore, than when the glass is only silvered. The price of silvering, as fixed by the British factory, GLA 235 → la -hi bi

de༧ e a ilve: ghs erd 13 " is atthe rate of 201. per cent. on glasses to the amount of 201. value

and 157. per cent

. for all glasses exceed ing that sum . glasses , manufactured for particular purposes, are ofthe following sizes

The For horse fire screens of the smaller sizes , and those of the largest. The smallest is generally of German Glass , 18 inches by 30-20 by 32-20 by 34-20 by 36— 22 by 36 . The largest of English Glass , 24 inches by 38-24 by 40-24 by 42-26 by 46— 28 by 48-30 by 50. Toilet Glasses of the smallest size , are generally of Dutch Manufacture , 8 inches by 10-9 by 12-9 by 14-10 by 14—10 by 16 12 by 17-12 by 18-13 by 17-14 by 18 . Largest Size, from Bohemia and Germany. 18 inches by 20-18 by 22-20 by 24 . The glasses for dressing boxes , being nearly of the preceding sizes , it is needless to point them out as a separate article. Glasses for chimney pieces run various , according to the size of the fire -place , and the height of the wall above. To save expence , they are sometimes fitted up in three plates , and the joints of the glass covered with small gilt mouldings or pilasters . At other times with the naked joint only. When they are managed in this way, the expence of the plate is reduced to one third less , or more sometimes . It adds, however, something to the expence of the frame , but not always

for when

they are of one plate, the frame in general is made bolder and more elegant . Glasses for piers run also very various

but as many

of these are made up for sale , it may be proper to give the general sizes of such .

236 GLA 16 inches by 28-18 by 30-20 by 32-20 by 36— 22 by 36-24 by 36-24 by 40—24 by 44-28 by 48 30 by 50-30 by 55-30 by 60-36 by 60. Glasses may, however, be ordered to any size to suit the pier they are for, from 36 by 60 inches, to 75 by 1 17, - which is the largest they cast, at the British Factory, Blackfriars-bridge, London . . When the piers run large, and it is required to fill the whole with glass, they are, to save expence, fitted up in two plates ; and when the edges of the plates are neatly joined together by nice grinding, the appearance, in some situations, is not materially offensive to the eye. Glass for large pictures is sometimes polished, but is usually cut out of German sheet glass, which is much larger than our English crown. The former, will cut out an oblong of 36 by 48, and the latter only 17 by 29. The running sizes of German sheet glass imported, are as follows : 16 inches by 20-16 by 22-17 by 24-17 by 23 18 by 24-18 by 25-19 by 26-20 by 27—22 by 28— 24 by 29-25 by 30-26 by 34-27 by 36. On this article I have received my information from Mr. Black, Glass Cutter, near the Seven Dials, Long Acre ; so that the preceding particulars on grinding, polishing, and silvering, may be depended upon as genuine. The glass imported into England from Holland, Ger many, and France, is thought to be nearly half of the amount of our consumption . Which, if a correct esti mate, proves that there is a want of encouragement to the English manufactories, or otherwise, that there are not a sufficient number of them to supply our own demands. On this account, the article of looking glass plate, is higher in price than it would be, if duly encouraged at home ; besides the inconvenience of waiting a considera time before an order can be executed. GLU 237 = BC CU 9. ted yo3 5 D T GLUE, amongst cabinet-makers, joiners, &c. is a tenaci ous viscid matter, which serves to bind or connect things together. This kind of glue is made of skins of animals, as oxen, calves, and sheep, and is beft from the skins of the oldeſt. Whole skins are but rarely used for this purpose, but only the shavings, parings, or scraps of them. In making glue, they fteep the parings two or three days in water, then washing them well out, they boil them to the consistence of a thick jelly, which they pass, whilft hot, through ozier baskets, to separate the im purities from it ; and then let it stand some time to purify it further. When all the filth is settled to the bottom of the vessel, they melt and boil it a second time, and then pour it into flat frames or moulds, whence it is taken out pretty hard and solid, and cut into square pieces or cakes ; and, lastly, they dry it in the wind, in a sort of net, and then string it, to finish its drying. Glue of the beſt quality swells moſt in ſteeping, but does not dissolve in the steeping water till it is over the fire. When glue is steeped over night, for making the next day, and it is found that the water is glutinous, and the cakes of course not swelled, these are indications of bad glue. The cabinet maker may learn from these observations, on the nature and making of this useful article, that old glue is the beft, and that its goodness or strength increases by fre quent boiling, if it be not burnt, which is very com monly the case by over fierce fires and hasty boiling. To such as do not understand glue making it may be proper to observe, that the cakes should be broken con veniently small, and soaked in as much spring water as will but cover the whole, otherwise it is in danger of being too thin, which cannot easily be remedied as when 'too thick. After it is in this state twelve hours, it should then be boiled in a copper vessel, over a gentle fire, till 238 GLU ! the whole be dissolved ; and for this purpose it should be constantly stirred about with a wooden spatula, and not left in that state till the dissolution perfectly takes place, when it should then be poured through a sieve to separate it from scum and filth. Lastly, it should then be put again into the vessel, and boiled up with a smart fire, and then poured into a wooden tray to cool it, and in which to keep it for use. There are some receipts for extraordinary glues, and one that will even resist fire and water. Thus, mix a handful of quick lime, with 4 ounces of linseed oil ; boil them to a strong consistence ; then spread it on tin plates in a shade, and it will become very hard, but will easily dissolve over a fire as common glue, and must be used when hot, in the common way. There is also a receipt for a glue that will answer for wood, stone, or glass, as follows : Take good glue 4 ounces, soak it over night in distilled vinegar, then boil it up, and take a clove of garlic, and beating it in a mortar, add to it 1 ounce of ox gall. The juice ex tracted from the garlic, uniting with the ox gall, must then be strained through a cloth into the above glue when warm ; then take mastick and sarcocolla,' of each 1 drachm, sandrac and turpentine, of each 2 drachms ; grind the sandrac and mastick fine, and put them toge ther, with the sarcocolla, into a phial , into which pour 1 ounce of ſtrong brandy upon it, and in this ftate it may ſtand for three hours, at a moderate diſtance from the fire, shaking it up at different times . The contents of this phial muft also be added to the glue when warm, which muſt be ſtirred about till some of the moisture is evaporated, and the glue is grown cold. When this glue is to be used, it must be soaked firft in vinegar till dissolved ; and if used as a cement for ſtone, join tripoli GOT 239 OL t WIL t b fot Je ? bai ? 74 and powdered chalk with it ; and if for glass, mix with it ground Venice glass, tripoli, and isinglass. For the joints of pannels in external doors and sign boards,.I recommend, on the ground of my own expe ments, a quantity of white lead ground up in linseed oil, as much as will make the glue of a whitish colour, not more; and care should be taken not to use it thick, but ftrong, that the wood may unite and keep out the air, which always proves fatal to any joint. The experiment may easily be made by joining two small pieces of deal with common glue, and other two with the white lead glue, both being equally well jointed, and let ſtand to dry thoroughly ; only observe, that the white lead glue will require more than double the time to dry it; then put them into water, or a damp place, and observe which will sooneft part. In time the white lead and glue in a manner petrifies, or becomes like a solid stone. This I accidentally observed in gluing two pieces of vellum together, which being of a milk white hue, to prevent the common glue from discharging the colour, or appear black through it, white lead was mixed with it, which at length became as the solid vellum itself, and never gave way. GOTHIC. What has any relation to the Goths, as Gothic architecture. The Goths were a warlike people, and above all others famous in the Roman history. They were originally of Scandinavia, the name by which the ancients distinguished the present countries of Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Finmark. Gothic architecture is divided into ancient and modern Gothic, which, in their ftyle, seem essentially different, though very generally considered as the same. The ancient Gothic architecture, which was used in. our island before the reign of Henry II. is of that kind of which the oldest of some of our cathedrals are com 240 GOT } posed. The characteristic marks of this style are these : The walls are very thick, generally without buttresses. The arches, both within and without, as well as those over the doors and windows, are simicircular, and sup ported by very solid and clumsy columns, with a kind of regular base and capital ; in short, plainness and solidity conftitute the ftriking features of this kind of building. The ancient Gothic or Norman architects did, however, sometimes deviate from these rules, having their capitals sometimes adorned with carving of foliage, and even animals ; and their massy columns, decorated with small half columns united to them, and their surfaces orna mented with spiral squares, lozenge net work, and other figures, either engraved or in relievo. The modern Gothic ftyle of building, which com menced in the reign of Henry II. in the twelfth century, is with pointed arches, and otherwise distinguished by the lightness of its work, by the excessive boldness of its elevations and sections, by the delicacy, profusion, and extravagant fancy of its ornaments ; so that it seems a perfect contraſt to the ancient Gothic architecture, and is therefore by some authors not considered of Gothic origin. But Bishop Warburton, in his notes on Pope's Epiftles, has given some reasons to prove that it is really of Gothic invention, though not the most ancient Gothic architecture. The description is so elegant and maſterly, and so much connected with important facts , that I cannot help transcribing it, though it will protract this article rather beyond my prescribed limits. He says, " Our Gothic ancestors had jufter and manlier notions of magnificence, on Greek and Roman ideas, than those mimics of taste, who profess to study only classic elegance ; and because the thing does honour to the genius of those barbarians, I shall endeavour to explain it. All our ancient churches are called, without GOT 241 distinction, Gothic, but erroneously. They are of two sorts ; the one built in the Saxon times, the other in the Norman. Several cathedral and collegiate churches, of the first sort, are yet remaining either in whole or part ; of which this was the original. When the Saxon kings became Chriftians, their piety, which was the piety of the times, consisted chiefly in building churches at home, and performing pilgrimage abroad, especially to the Holy Land ; and these spiritual exercises assisted and supported one another, for the most venerable, as well as most elegant models of religious edifices, were then in Palestine. The first Saxon king that became a Christian, was Edwin, king of the Northumbrians, or of Northumber land. In the eleventh year of his reign, this prince, with all his nobles, with very many of the commonality, was baptised 180 years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, and in the year of Christ 627. And though our learned author seems to consider the piety of the Saxon princes, without discrimination, little more than the effects of Roman superstition ; yet this prince, according to the character given him by the ecclesiastical writer here quoted, appears, with others of the Saxon kings, really and evangelically pious. " Milner's Eccle. Hist. vol. 3, page 114. From these the Saxon builders took the whole oftheir ideas, as may be seen by comparing the drawings which travellers have given us of the churches yet standing in that country, with the Saxon remains of what we find at home ; and particularly in that sameness of style in the latter religious edifices of the knights temporals, professedly built upon the model of the church of the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, with the earlier remains of our Saxon edifices. Now the architecture of the R 242 GOT good 1t די Holy Land was Grecian , but greatly fallen from its an cient elegance . Our Saxon performance was indeed a bad copy of it , and as much inferior to the works of St. Helene and Justinian , ( i . e . edifices built by persons in the Holy Land of this name ) as theirs were to the Grecian models they had followed

yet still the foot

steps of ancient art appeared in the circular arches , the entire columns , and the division of the entablature , into a sort of architrave , frieze and cornice , and a solidity equally diffused over the whole mass . This , by way of diftinction , I would call the Saxon architecture . But our Norman works had a very different origin . When the Goths had conquered Spain , (about the year of our Lord 411 ) and the general warmth of the climate , and the religion of the old inhabitants had ripened their wits , and inflamed their mistaken piety , both kept in exercise by the neighbourhood of the Saracens , through emula tion of their service , and aversion to their superstition , they struck out a new species of architecture , unknown to Greece and Rome , upon original principles , and ideas much nobler than what had given birth even to classical magnificence . For this Northern people having been accustomed, during the gloom of paganism , to worship the deity in graves , a practice common to all nations

when their new religion required covered edifices , they ingeniously projected to make them resemble graves , as nearly as the distance of architecture would permit

at

once indulging their old prejudices , and providing for their present convenience , by a cool receptacle in a sultry climate

and with what skill and success they

executed the project , by the assistance of Saracen archi tects , whose exotic style of building very luckily suited their purpose , appears from hence, that no attentive ob server ever viewed a regular avenue of well grown trees , intermixing their branches over head , but it presently GOT 243 put him in mind of the long vista through the Gothic cathedral ; or ever entered one of the larger and more elegant edifices of this kind, but it presented to his ima gination an avenue of trees ; and this alone is what can be truly called the Gothic style of building. Under this idea of so extraordinary a species of architecture, all the irregular transgressions against art, all the monstrous offences against nature, disappear ; every thing has its reason, every thing is in order ; and an harmonious whole rises from the studious application of means pro per and proportionate to the end. For could the arches be otherwise than pointed, when the workmen were to imitate that curve which branches of two appropriate trees making by their intersection with one another ? or could the columns be otherwise than split into distinct shafts, when they were to represent the stems of a clump of trees growing close together ? On the same principles they formed the spreading ramifications of the stone workin the windows, and the stained glass in the interstices ; the one to represent the branches, the other the leaves of an opening grove, and both concurred to preserve that gloomy light which inspires religious re verence and dread. Lastly, we see the reason of their studied aversion to apparent solidity in these stupendous masses, deemed so absurd by men accustomed to the apparent, as well as real strength of Grecian architecture. Had it been only a wanton exercise of the artist's skill, to shew he could give real strength without the appearance of any, we might indeed admire his superior science, but we must needs condemn his ill judginent. But when one considers that this surprising lightness was necessary to compleat the execution of his ideas of a sylvan place of worship, one cannot sufficiently admire the ingenuity of the con trivance. This too will account for the contrary qua " 1

GOT lities , in what I call the Saxon architecture. These artists copied , as has been said , from the churches in the Holy Land , which were built on the models of the Grecian architecture , but corrupted by prevailing bar barism

and still farther depraved by

a religious idea . The first places of Christian worship were sepulchres and subterraneous caverns, low and heavy from neces sity. When Christianity became the religion of the state, and sumptuous temples began to be erected, they yet, in regard to the first pious ages , preserved the massive style, made still more venerable by the church of the holy sepulchre

where this style was, on

a double account, followed and aggravated. " 244 Hence the reader will observe , that what some ar chitects term the ancient Gothic , this learned prelate calls Saxon

and the Arabian or Saracenic of some artists,

he considers to be purely of Norman origin . Yet there appears to be a foundation for the distinction between ancient and modern Gothic architecture . The ancient, seems to have been a very rude and irregular kind , which the Goths, in the fifth century , brought from their native country into Germany, when in their heathen state

that when they became Christians, by means of their wars with Rome and conquest of Spain , they then be came authors of a new species of architecture exceedingly light , and was introduced into the British isles about the tenth century, after the Saxon princes were converted, and which continued to prevail in the erection of our cathedrals, till the sixteenth century, when the ancient Grecian architecture was restored , and followed in our works. So that if this view of the subject be accurate , the Saxon architecture was in a period between the ancient and modern Gothic , and was an imperfect imi tation of the architecture which they copied in their crusades in the Holy Land. GRE 245 GOUGE, a hollow chissel used by cabinet makers and carvers. Young persons, in both professions, should observe, that the steel in gouges lies in the centre of their thickness, about half their length ; and that when they are sharpened, they should be rubbed down from both, but at firſt chiefly on the back side. If the tool be too hard, lay it upon a hot bar of iron or poker, till it turn rather blue, which will give it a proper temper. GRAVITY, in mechanics, is the tendency or force by which bodies are carried or settle towards the centre of the earth . GRECIAN, properly, is one born in Greece, or that is skilled in the Greek language. I, however, here use it adjectively, to signify any thing executed or shaped in imitation of the taste ofthe Greeks. Many writers have celebrated the praises of this people, as having left to pofterity, models of sculpture and architecture, much superior to any other nation. Particularly the Grecian architecture has always excelled every other attempt ; and has been, therefore, the generally allowed example of fine buildings, and the best tafte in architecture. In their highest state of improvements, they seem to have regu lated most of their conduct by scientific rules, at least the polite part of them aimed at it as much as possible ; and hence some of their feasts consisted of guests, to the number of nine, in imitation of their nine graces or muses. It was from this idea that I was led to study the design in plate 47, which I have ventured to call a Grecian dining table, both on account of its figure, and the number it is adapted to accommodate at dinner. The shape of their dining table, seems to have been taken either from the moon in her crescent state, or from sigma, the eighteenth letter of their alphabet, which is of that figure, or like our C. But most probably it was from the former, as the course and age of the moon THE 246 GRE regulated some of their feasts. The old Romans sat at meat as we do, till the Grecian luxury and softness had corrupted them; and then they lolled, or reclined at And as the Romans dinner, after the Grecian manner. had borrowed this idle mode of eating from them, in like manner the Jews, after being subject to the Romans, copied the reclining fashion of regailing themselves at the dining table , which was practiced at the time of our Saviour, and has been noticed under the article BED, where I mentioned that the Jews used three dining beds at one table ; to which I had my eye in introducing three dining sofas, as exhibited in the design. But it is to be observed, that in after times, the Romans changed their lecti tricliniorum, or three dining couches or beds, into stibadium, which was one large couch sufficient to hold the whole company at dinner, and was of a half moon shape. The stibadium surrounded a citron table, in the centre, of a circular shape ; but I cannot affirm posi tively , whether it were a perfect circle, or of a crecent or simi-circular figure. I have, however, adopted the latter shape as most probable, and best adapted for the purpose, in admitting a dumb waiter in the centre ; and the remaining space on each side will afford a servant very easy access to the table. In circumference, this table is 18 feet, being composed of three parts, with two flaps each, 6 feet long, and 2 feet 6 inches wide, and which are joined together with brass trap fasteners on the underside, in the same manner as any common dining table . When these tables are separate, the flaps may be let down as those of a pembroke table ; and if the hollow side be turned to the front of a sofa, they may be used, inſtead of a sofa table, if, in the hollow side, there be one or two drawers introduced, which may easily be done. As to any other particular, the design will speak for itself, GRE 247 Inthe back ground is a suitable side- board, supported with antique figures, over which, on the top, are placed two female ones, holding lights . The Ionic columns are placed before the side- board at each end, which, to gether with the dining table thus situated, will form an agreeable vista to the eye. The manner of lying at meat amongst the Romans, Greeks, and more modern Jews, was the same in all respects. The table was placed in the middle, round which stood three beds covered with cloth or tapestry, according to the quality of the master of the house. Upon these the guests lay inclining the superior part of their bodies upon their left arms, the lower part being stretched out at full length, or a little bent. Their heads were supported and raised up with pillows. The first man lay at the head of the bed ; the next lay with his head towards the feet of the first, from which he was defended by the bolster that supported his own back, commonly reaching over to the middle of the first man, and the rest after the same manner. The most honourable place was the middle bed, and the middle of that. Favourites commonly lay in the bosom of their friends , that is , placed next below them. After the men, amongst the Romans, adopted this reclining posture at meat, the women, for some time, continued to sit, as most be coming the sex : but in after times they became recon ciled to the same position as the men. GRECIAN COUCH SOFA See plates 48, 49, 75. SQUAB The stuffing part of these designs , is the chief difficulty in their execution, and doubtless requires upholsterers of taste and ability to finish them properly. The frames of these may be finished in white and gold, or in maho " 248 GRO ... gany carved ; particularly the sofas round the Grecian dining table, should be executed and carved in maho gany. As Apollo's harp in the centre, and the fret work in the entablature, extending the whole length of the sofas. If the fret be cut in hollow edges, not square to the ground, the work will have a better effect, and will not harbour dirt. The scroles at the ends ofthe couches, are formed by deal kept lower than the carved work on the outside, to admit ofsome stuffing, which will bring the work nearly level with the moulding. GREEN, one of the original prismatic colours, or such as are reflected by the sun's rays on a glass prism . See COLOURS. There are several greens used in water and oil colours : Sap green, verditor green, green bice, and Prussian green, in water colours ; and in oil, verdigrease, common and distilled ; Brunswick green, Scheel's green, and terra verte. GROIN, amongst builders, is the angular curve, made by the intersection of two semicylinders or arches ; and is either regular or irregular. A regular groin is, when the intersecting arches, whether semicircular or semicliptical, are of the same diameters and heights, An irregular groin is where one of the arches is semi circular, and the other semieliptical. To find the lines. for groins, is by the same method as is shewn under the article BRACKET, for angle brackets, and see TESTER. GROOVE, amongst joiners and cabinet-makers, are of various kinds . It sometimes denotes the channel made by their plough on the edge of a moulding, style, or rail , to put pannels into . There are also half dovetail grooves ; that is, when only one side is cut sloping under, and when both sides of the groove are cut in this manner, it is termed a whole GRO 249 dovetail groove. Some workmen fix the tops of their loby chest by a dovetail groove, which they taper to wards the front, that the top may be more easily driven to its place ; but in some cases it seems a preferable way to dovetail a slip of deal behind, and in front one of ma hogany or wainscot veneered, and screw the top on from the under side of these slips. Bookcase ends are grooved, in common, to receive sliding shelves ; but they now make racks of wood on the front and behind, which receive a moveable slip about an inch wide, so that the shelves may be put to any height to suit volumes. This is common in large deal bookcases. In very small bookcases for ladies, they use pegs with button ends ; and inſtead of grooves or racks, bore holes at equal diftances on each side the bookcase ends into which these pegs are screwed, by which to support the shelves, GROTESQUE, or grotesk, in sculpture and painting, signifies something whimsical and extravagant, consist ing either of things merely imaginary, or natural objects, so diſtorted as to produce surprise and ridicule. Figures of this nature were anciently used to adorn the grottos, wherein the tombs of eminent persons or families were inclosed. GROUND, in painting and perspective. In the first, it is understood of such parts of the piece, as have nothing painted upon them, but retain the ori ginal colour, on which the other colours are applied to make the representations . But in picture painting, as connected with perspective, the ground has no relation to such a diſtinction , but signifies a plain , parallel to the horizon, whereon objects are represented. See PER SPECTIVE. GROUP, in painting and sculpture, is an assemblage of ریال ( 250 HAL 1 1 two or more figures of men, beafts , fruits , or the like, which have some apparent relation to each other. GUAIACUM, lignum vitæ, which see. GUM is a concrete vegetable juice, of no particular smell or tafte, becoming viscous and tenacious, when moist ened with water. It neither dissolves in vinous spirits, nor in oils ; melting, but suffering no dissipation in the heat of boiling water. One ounce of gum arabic will render a pint of water considerably glutinous. Besides gum arabic, there are the gums tragacanth, cenega, cherry, and plum-tree. Gum arabic is used in water colours, in a greater or less degree. It is also used in upholſterer's paſte, for particular purposes, where it requires a good degree of tenacity. • H HALL. See ATRIUM. In very magnificent buildings, where the hall is larger and loftier than ordinary, and placed in the middle of the house, it is called a saloon. The length of a hall should be at leaft two and a quarter its breadth ; and in large buildings three times its width. The height of the hall may be two thirds of the breadth ; and if made with an arched ceiling, it will be much handsomer. In this case its height is found by dividing its breadth into six parts, five of which will be the height from the floor, to the underside of the key of the arch. HALL CHAIRS , are such as are placed in halls, for the use of servants or ftrangers waiting on business. They are generally made all of mahogany, with turned seats, and the creft or arms of the family painted on the centre of the back. See plate 51 . HIN 251 CFat 1 HANGINGS, denote any kind of drapery hung up againſt the walls or wainscotting of a room. - See PAPER HANGINGS. HATCHMENT, in heraldry, is the coat of arms of a person dead, usually placed on the front of an house, whereby may be known what rank the deceased was of when living. The whole is so distinguished , as to enable an observer, who understands hatchments, to know whether the deceased were a bachelor, married, or a widower ; with the like diftinctions for the other sex. HAVANNA wood, a kind of mahogany that grows in the island of Cuba, usually called Cuba wood. - See CUBA WOOD. It is termed Havanna wood, because Havanna is the chief town in the island of Cuba. It is a sea port town, and is situated on the north west part of the island, opposite to Florida. The harbour of Havanna is one of the finest amongst those of the West India Islands, and is thought to equal any harbour in the world. This island is 700 miles in length, and 90 broad, and is situated between 20 and 25 degrees, north latitude ; and between 74 and 87, west longitude. See Cook's ATLAS. This island is now in the possession of Spain, and is of the greatest importance to that nation, it being the rendezvous for all their fleets, on their return from America to Europe, as they all must pass through the gulph of Florida. HEMISPHERE HEPTAGON HEXAGON See GEOMETRY, in Supplement. HEXAHEDRON HEXASTYLE, a building having columns in front. HICKERY, a whitish, hard, and tough wood, used by whip-makers. HINGE, a most useful article in cabinet-making, of which 252 HIS I there are a great variety ; for some of which see But hinge, to which we may add the following : Hinges for tea canisters are made very thin in the joint, and long enough to extend the length of the cani ster in one piece. They set on perfectly even with the top, so that there is no joint in the way. Hinges for pulpit doors are made very wide to receive the whole projection of the cornice, which always crosses the door, and therefore it becomes necessary to have these wide projecting but-hinges which screw on to the edge of the door and also to the fixed part, by which means the door is thrown out so as to clear the cornice. These hinges are used for other purposes where there are any mouldings in the way of a door. Swan neck hinges are a kind of pin-hinge used for some camp table tops, as fig. 9, plate 8. Article, CAMP. Ell-hinge for shaving and dressing tables are adopted for strength, for the ell part returns on the front and back edge of the swinging part, and greatly secures the top. H tumbler hinge, to set on the edges of any kind of turn-over frame, as that of a sofa bed, or turn-over table tops. Pin-hinges are to avoid the disagreeable appearance of the knockle of common but-hinges on the external part of neatly finished work. These are let into the ends of doors so as to bring the centre of the pin even with the front, otherwise it will not clear in turning, and that the projecting strap which has the pin may be behind. It is let into the top and bottom of the carcase into which the door shuts, and the door ends slip into the other strap of the hinge which has not the pin. HISPANIOLA, or St. Domingo, is a West India island, and produces dying woods, and mahogany of a hardish texture, but is not much in use with us. It is situated between 17 and 20 degrees of north latitude, and be HON 253 tween 67 and 74 of west longitude . It is pleasantly variegated with hills, plains, woods, and rivers. HOLLY-WOOD, a white, perhaps the whitest of any, kind of wood, much in use amongst cabinet- makers for corner lines and other purposes. It is capable of being dyed a good black, and is used as such for ornamenting cabinet work. The common holly grows naturally in woods and forests in many parts of England, and is a beautiful tree in winter when most others are stripped of their verdure. There is also another species, which grows in Carolina, and a third is a native of Asia. They are to be raised by sowing the acorns in March ; in order to which they should be gathered in August as soon as ripe, and kept in dry earth or sand till spring. The ground on which they are to be sown must be well dug and cleansed from all noxious weeds, then levelled ; after this several rills are to be drawn along it with a hoe of about two inches deep, and from one to two feet distant. In these the acorns are to be laid, two or three inches asunder, and the ground then drawn over them with a rake. the middle of April the young plants will appear ; but in the first year they will make but very little progress in size, and are to be kept clear of weeds ; the year fol lowing they will grow very quick, and in the March after their sowing the ground between the rows must be carefully and lightly dug up, which will greatly facilitate their taking root. In the April, after their sowing, the plants which stand too close must be taken up and trans planted to the places where they are to stand. Wheeler's Botany. HONDURAS, a province of North America, in New Spain, lying on the North Sea, being about 370 miles in length and 200 in breadth. It lies considerably south west of Cuba, between 12 and 16 degrees north latitude, 1 254 HOP and 82 to 90 degrees west longitude. From this province is imported the principal kind of mahogany in use amongst cabinet- makers, which generally bears the name of Honduras mahogany, and sometimes Bay-wood, from the bay or arm of the sea which runs up to it. The difference between Honduras and Spanish wood is easily perceived by judges, but not by others unskilled in wood. The marks of the former are, as to size, its length and width, which generally run much more than in the latter wood. We seldom import any much more than 2 feet 2 inches broad and 10 feet long, and generally not more than 21 or 22 inches broad. Honduras wood will frequently run 12 to 14 feet in length, and from 2 to 4 feet wide. In rare inftances, there have been some 6 or 7 feet over. The grain of Honduras wood is of a different quality from that of Cuba, which is close and hard, without black speckles, and of a rosy hue, and sometimes strongly figured ; but Honduras wood is of an open nature, with black or grey spots, and frequently of a more flashy figure than Spanish. The best quality of Honduras wood is known by its being free from chalky and black speckles, and when the colour is inclined to a dark gold hue. The common sort of it looks brisk at a distance, and of a lively pale red ; but, on close inspection, is of an open and close grain, and of a spongy appearance. HOPE, in painting, is represented by a beautiful young wo man, in a long robe hanging loose, standing upon tip- toes, and a trefoil, or three leaved grass, in her right hand and an anchor in her left. Her posture, on tip -toes , is ex pressive of her earnest expectation , for though hope is beset with fears, yet it is always accompanied with ex pectation. The anchor, which she has in her left hand, denotes the security ofthe mind, or soul, which possesses strong hope. The image we, presume, is borrowed HOR 235 22 23 24 24 Co પત્ની છે 1 from Heb . vi . 19 , which doubtless is one of the most beautiful in the sacred oracles. HORIZON , from op , bounding or limiting the sight. In perspective it denotes a plane parallel to the ground plane . In the elementary planes, in perspective, the horizon is supposed to be produced till it cut the plane of the picture, which intersection generates the vanishing line of the said plane , or what is commonly called the horizontal line. See PERSPECTIVE , in Supplement. HORNBEAM . The common hornbeam is a native of Europe and North America. Where this tree is pro perly treated it grows to a large size, and may be culti vated to great advantage by the proprietors of cold bar ren hills , where it will thrive , when few other sorts will grow. When this tree is propagated for timber it should be raised from seeds upon the same soil and in the same situation where it is designed to grow

but when it is

designed for hedges , or underwood , it may be propa gated by layers . The seeds of this species should be sown in autumn soon after they are ripe. When the plants appear, they should be cleared from weeds , and in two years time they will be fit to transplant, and as they advance in growth must be thinned by cutting away graduallythe most unpromising plants . This wood be ing of a close and hard texture in the grain, is much used byturners . HORSE, a term applied to the feet which supports a rising desk, or which keeps a glass in an inclined position . It is also used to denote a kind of tall dressing -glass suspended by two pillars and claws , and may , when hung by two centre screws , be turned back or forward to suit the person who dresses at them. See Plate 52 . But the standards of these glasses are sometimes glued up hollow, to admit a weight on each side equal to the } 256 ICH glass and frame, by which means the glass is raised to any height the same as a sash window is. It should be observed, that these standards ought not to be too small in their diameter, otherwise the lead will require to be so long, that there will not be a sufficient room for the glass frame to rise high enough. And it should likewise be remembered, that the frame into which the glass is fixed, ought to be of as light wood as possible, that the whole may not weigh too much for a moderate sized lead weight. HORSE-SHOE, or KIDNEY TABLE. Such as are made of this shape or nearly. These are of different kinds.— Some are made for writing and reading at, and have a rising desk in the centre, with piers of drawers at each end. Others are made for ladies' work tables, with only a shallow drawer under the top.See plate 44. KIDNEY TABLE. HUMILITY is represented, in painting, by a virgin all in white, her arms across upon her breast, her head in clined, and a golden crown at her feet. Humility, accompanies purity ; hence her white går ment, her readiness or disposition to confess her faults, is signified by the inclined posture of her head ; and the crown of gold at her feet, shews that humility treads on earthly grandeur, in the expectation of future bliss. I. ÍCHNOGRAPHY, in perspective, the view of any thing cut off by a plane, parallel to the horizon, and at the base. The word is derived from ichnos, footstep, and a grapho, to write, being a description of the footsteps or traces of any thing. INL 257 ... AN ICONOLOGY, the doctrine of picture, or representa tion, such as is given under HUMILITY, and several other terms in this Dictionary, expressive of moral virtues, places and seasons, &c. and the passions of the soul. Iconology is therefore a help to our rightly under ftanding such representations in paintings ; and also enables the young artift to compose them himself, by directing him into the hieroglyphic nature of such re presentations. ICOSAHEDRON. -See GEOMETRY, in Supplement. IMPOST, the projecting part of a pilafter or pier, on which the arch refts. Sometimes the entablature of the order serves as the impoft of the arch, which has a grand and stately appearance. INCIDENCE, denotes the direction in which one body ſtrikes another. The angle of incidence, is the angle in which an object ſtrikes a reflecting plane or mirror. INDIGO, a blue used by dyers, prepared from the plant Indigofera. INK-STAND. Black tambour ink-stands are often used. In these stands there is a drawer for paper, and the tam bour incloses a place for ink and sand, which appear, when the tambour is pushed back. These stands are about 1 foot in length, and 9 inches wide. INLAYING, in cabinet-making, was much in use be tween twenty and thirty years back ; but was soon laid aside, as a very expensive mode of ornamenting furniture, as well as being subject to a speedy decay. The present mode of inlaying with brass, is most durable, and looks well let into black woods of any kind. They, however, begin now to put it on the edges of some particular mahogany work, as for the cock heads of drawers ; and considering how apt those of mahogany are to break off, it must be allowed a substantial, though an expen sive method of working. S 258 JAP INSTRUMENTS, for drawing . -See DRAWING, in Sup plement. INTERCOLUMNIATION, the space or due diſtance of columns from each other. -See COLUMN. INTERSECTION, the point where two lines cut each other. - See PERSPECTIVE. IONIC, resembling the fashion of Ionia, a Grecian pro vince. Hence the Ionic order. -See under COLUMN. IRON- WORK. Top reserve it from rust, take common, or Venice turpentine, and dissolve it in the oil of tur pentine, and add to it some linseed oil, made clear by standing long in the hot sun ; but for commoner pur poses, drying linseed oil may do, which has not been bleeched in the sun. When this sort of iron varnish is used, it is best to warm it, and then with a brush to lay it on as thin as possible, which in four or five days will dry. I do not recommend this in cases where the iron is to be much handled, but for chains, hinges of gates, and other external works, where the rain is apt to rust iron. ISLES, are the sides or wings of a building. IVORY BLACK. -See BLACK. IVY TREE, of which there are two species : One with oval and lobed leaves, or the great common ivy ; the other is with five oval sawed leaves, growing together, commonly called the Virginia creeper. It is used in England, chiefly to plant against walls to cover them as an ornament, and therefore needs not be further noticed, J JAMB, any support on either side, as door posts. JAPANNING, a kind of painting. See PAINTING . LIB 259 92-15 PJUSTICE, in painting, is represented by a fair Virgin, clothed in white, blinded. In her right hand she holds the Roman fasces, with an ax in it ; in her left hand a flame, and an ostrich by her side . The white robe shews that she should be spotless, void of passion, and without respect to persons, as is denoted by her being hood-winked. The fasces, denote chas tisement for small offences ; and the ax, decapitation for those of a capital kind. K KEEPING. The due distance of objects, in painting landscapes. -See PAINTING. KNEE-HOLE, in cabinet work, is a recess, convenient opening, or an aperture in any piece of furniture, to admit a person to sit to write or dress at. The knee-hole should never be less than 21 inches wide, and 25 high. KEY- STONE, the centre stone of an arch. L LAKE, a fine crimson red, generally prepared from scarlet rags, cochineal, and Brasil wood. The best of what is commonly sold, is made from the colour extracted from scarlet rags. There are many kinds of it at various prices, some being nearly as bright and high coloured as carmine, which probably is made so by the addition of that colour. Hence that is reckoned best which comes nearest the carmine shades. LANDSCAPE, in painting, the view or prospect of any country extended as far as the eye can see. LIBRARY-CASE. - See BOOKCASE. In plate 53, is a design for a case which I presume would look well in a 260 LIG library room. The bufts in the lower niches, may be those of persons famed for literature and genius ; and the figures in the upper part, may be suited to the chief subjects of the books contained in the library case. The niches may be formed by gluing up ribs of deal, or better, if of faulty mahogany, and then veneer them in narrow slips, in the manner of a vase knife case. On each side of the niches are shelves for books ; and by the plan below it will appear, that scarcely any room is loft in the case for books, on account of the niches. For any other particular, the design itself will be sufficient. - LIBRARY TABLE. Twodesigns of which are givenin plate 54. That of the antique ftyle has only three real drawers, one in the centrebetween each leg. If, however, the sides of the drawers be made to incline to the centre ofthe table, and made to run on slips grooved into the bottoms, there is room for six drawers. This table would suit best for gilding, on account of the carving introduced in the design, if placed in a situation chiefly for ornament ; but if wanted for much use, must be executed in, mahogany, which it may be with good effect. The upper design is more modern, and may easily be finished in mahogany. The toes and caftors are of one piece caft in brass. The nest of drawers in the centre, rise by two small springs placed opposite to each other, which are conftructed on the model of baize door springs, which cannot but be understood by any workman who is acquainted with hanging a door of that kind. In this table there are four real drawers made with square sides . Every other par ticular will be easily known by the workman . In plate 55, is another design for a library table, the construction of which is obvious from mere inspection. LIBRARY STEPS. See Supplement. LIGHTS. These are very various, as employed for do LOC 261 e ca case 200 wye 197 glice ree Evel ea ott 1! 108 gar mestic purposes. Of a tripod light is a design in plate 60. The plan is triangular, and towards the top the sides must be worked rather concavely, that they may agree with the volutes on each angle, as the plan of the top shews onthe plate. Figure lights have been much introduced of late, and which certainly produce a more noble appearance than those of the tripod kind. There are also small bronze lights, for commodes and chimney caps, which are most commonly used. LIGNUM VITAE, a very hard and most ponderous wood, and is of a resinous quality, of a blackish yellow colour in the middle, and of a hot aromatic taste. The smaller branches have an ash coloured bark, and are garnished with leaves divided by pairs of a bright green colour. The common lignum vitæ, so called because of its medicinal qualities, is a native of the West Indies, and the warmer parts of America, where it becomes a large tree, having a hard, brittle, brownish bark, not very thick. LIME TREE. A white soft wood, of the orange species, and is in general use amongst carvers. LOBBY, in architecture, is a small hall or waiting room : it is also an entrance into a principal apartment, where there is a considerable space between that and a portico, or vestibule; and the length or dimensions will not allow it to be considered as a vestibule or anti-room. LOBBY CHEST, is a kind of half chest of drawers , adapted for the use of a small study, lobby, or small lodging room. They usually consist of four drawers in height, rising to 3 feet in height, and their length about the same. The top drawer is usually divided into two ; and sometimes. there is a writing slider which draws out under the top. The base and brackets should never be more than 5 inches in height, and the width of the ends 20 inches. LOCKS. Of this useful instrument of security, there are 262 MAH various species. The common till lock, both spring and tumbler, used for drawers. The cupboard door kind, common, and spring and tumbler, used for bookcase and wardrobe doors. Box locks with link plates , such as for tea chests and wine cisterns . Mortice locks , some for doors, and others for sliders of cylinder writing tables. Those for inner doors are called spring locks, and are the most considerable, both in use and structure. The principal parts of a spring lock are the main plate, the cover plate, and the pin hole ; to the main plate belong the key hole, top hook, cross wards, bolt toe, draw back spring, tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and the staples ; to the cover plate belong the pin, main ward, cross ward, step ward or dap ward ; to the pin hole be long the hook ward, main cross ward, shank, the pot or broad bow ward, and bit. There are also a variety of patent locks, the object of which is to prevent and frustrate the arts of pick-locks. Some of these are considered as infallible by their pa tentees, but are disputed, as to their perfection , in point of absolute security, by competent judges, who are dis interested and impartial in their opinions ; and therefore it is difficult to point out the particular patent lock most to be depended upon. In general, however, those of Mr. Bramah have the preference. M MACHINE, any instrument that serves to promote or re gulate moving powers, so as to save either time or force. The word is from μaxavn , machane, invention or art. Hence, a machine is something that consists more in art and invention, than in the strength of its parts and materials. MAHOGANY- See BAY WOOD-Cuba, Hispaniola, Honduras, and Jamaica. 50 N E- 1 MEA 263 16, 22 3 R CA 23 P 3 MARBLE, in natural history, is considered as a kind of fossil, being composed of small separate concretions, moderately hard, not giving fire with steel, fermenting with, and soluble in acid menstrua, and calcining in a slight fire. Brit. Encyclop. The colours and names by which marbles are distin guished, are many. African marble is either of a red or a redish brown, streaked with veins ofa white, or car nation, with green veins. English white marble is veined with red. Marble of Brabanzon, in Hamault, is black veined with white. Marble of Auvergene, in France, is of a pale red, mingled with violet, green, and yellow. Brocatelle marble, is mingled withlight shades of Isabella yellow, pale, and grey. This comes from Tortosa, in Spain. Marble of Bresse, in Italy, is yellow, with spots of white. Marble of Carrara, on the coasts of Genoa, is very white, and thought to be the most pro per of any other for works of sculpture. Cipollini marble, is of a sea green colour, mixed with large waves or clouds of a white or pale green. Margosse marble, in the Milanese, has a white ground, with brownish veins. Divan marble, near Liege, is of a pure black, and very beautiful. Marble of Languedoc, is of a vivid red, with large white veins or stains. Of Sicily, is of a brownish red, stained with oblong squares of white ; be sides some others mentioned by authors, which it is unnecessary to detail. Marble may be polished with pumice stone and emery, or with lead and emery. MASTIC, a transparent resin from the lentice tree. See VARNISH . MASTICOT, a light yellow, This yellow, amongst blues, will make good greens. It grinds well, and bears a good body. MEASURE, a term variously applied. In geometry, it is the assuming of any certain quantity, as one, to which the ratio or proportion of other homogeneous or similar 264 MEA quantities is expressed ; or it is using a certain known measure, by which to determine the precise extent or quantity of any thing. Measuring wood, amongst cabinet makers, is gene rally by the rule of feet and inches, considered superfi cially, or in inch boards, which is usually performed by cross multiplication , or multiplying the length and breadth by each other ; and it is requisite to observe, that feet multiplied by feet, produce feet ; inches by feet, produce feet and inches ; inches by inches, produce parts ; and parts by parts, produce seconds and thirds. 1st Example. ft. in. 8 1 64 8∞20 682 0 2 Content 11 4 Suppose a board 8 feet 6 inches long, by 1 foot 4 inches broad ; first say, once 8 is 8 feet, and once 6 is 6 inches; then proceed to multiply the feet by inches, which give feet and inches, thus, 4 times 8 are 32, the 12s in 32 are 2, and 8 remain, which are inches. Lastly, The inches by inches, as 4 times 6 are 24 parts, which make 2 inches, which set down under the inches, as in the foregoing example ; and adding all up, we have 11 feet 4 inches the product. To have a clear idea how these 24 parts make 2 inches, the learner muft suppose that he has measured the whole board, except a small remains of it at one corner, 6 inches in length and 4 in width ; and let him imagine this small piece cut into four equal divisions lengthwise, then he cannot but perceive, that if these four lengths MEA 265 I know is g super erform gth observe fer cepa were joined end to end, that they would produce a piece 24 inches long, and nearly 1 inch wide, if cut by a thin saw. Then, if this 24 inches be divided in the centre, and each piece be joined together, we shall have a slip of wood 1 foot long by 2 inches broad, which is the sixth part of a foot superficial measure. This piece. is, according to the preceding example, added to another 8 inches broad and a foot long, which remained after multiplying 8 feet by 4 inches, to which also is added a piece I foot by 6 inches, the remains of the first 8 feet. Thus it is evident that these being joined together, will make one superficial foot, and there will be à piece re maining foot long by 4 inches broad, which is pre cisely one-third of a foot. 2d Example. ft. in. Suppose a board 19 9 And S 2 6 20 0 18 0 1 6 5 0 4 6 0 4 6 49 4 6 parts of an inch. In this example, firft say, 2 times 10 are 20 feet, con sidering 1 in the place of 10s, for the sake of ease ; then say 2 times 9 feet are 18 , which place perpendicularly under 20 feet. Next cross multiply from 2 feet to 9 inches, saying 2 times 9 are 18, the 125 in 18 are 1 , and 6 remains, which 6 place under the inches, and 1 under the feet ; then cross from 6 to 19, saying, for the sake of ease as before, 6 times 10 are 60, the 12 $ in 60 266 MEA are 5, which place under the feet ; and again say, 6 times 9 are 54, the 12s in which are 4, and 6 inches remaining, which place respectively ; and, laftly, inches by inches, saying, 6 times 9 are 54, which producing inches and parts, make 4 inches and 6 parts, the whole of which being added together, we have 49 feet 4 inches and 6 parts of an inch. And here let the learner ob serve, that if the superficial area or content be very extensive, it may be divided into 2 parts, and the product of one added to itself, will be the whole. Thus, let it be required to find the con tent in feet and inches, an area of By - Then state the question thus. By - - 3d Example. ft. in. 114 63 6 long S broad 57 3 long 31 10 broad 57 3 171 0 7 6 5 10 8 026 41 283 56 parts 283 56 566 11 0 And begin to work in the following manner, by firſt saying, once 7 feet are 7, once 5 , and so of the inches. Then say, 3 times 7 are 21 , 1 and go 2 tens ; 3 times 5 are 15, and the 2 tens are 17, which place to the left. Next observe, that as 3 is in the place of 10 , say three 30s are 90, the 12s in 90 are 7, and 6 remaining make 7 feet 6 inches. Proceed then with 10 inches -thus, MEA 267 10 times 7 are 70, the 12' in 70 are 5 , and 10 inches remain ; then as 5 is in the place of 50, say ten 50* are 500, the 12s in which are 41 , and 8 remaining, which being feet and inches, place them respectively. Laſtly, 10 times 3 inches are 30, the 12 two, which are inches, and the 6 remaining are parts ; and adding this product to itself, the whole will be 566 feet 11 inches. Hence it is evident, by such a method, the content of a very great area may, in a short time, and in a very small compass of figures, be ascertained. It may, how ever, be necessary to present a fourth example ; in which, not only feet, inches, parts, but also seconds and thirds may be wanted, when great accuracy is re quisite. Let it therefore be required to find the content of a board ft. in. p. 11 9 6 long, which is equal to an inch. By 26 3 broad, the 3 parts being equal to of an inch . 22 0 0 160 560 046 29 46 without the inch in length , and inch in width 0 2 9 seconds 0023 0100 0 0 3 1 6 thirds 29 8 8 4 6 Content of the whole. Proceed to multiply as in the first example, till you come to the parts of an inch, and then draw a line under it, and add all up. Then begin and cross multiply by the parts, saying 3 times 11 are 33, which producing inches and parts, set down 2 inches 9 parts ; again, 3 268 MEA times 9 are 27 , these producing parts and seconds, set down 2 parts and 3 seconds. Begin then with the 6 parts in the length of the board, and say 6 times 2 are 12, which are 1 inch, placing it under the inches ; then 6 times 6 are 36, which make 3 parts ; and, lastly, parts by parts, saying, 3 times 6 are 18 , which producing the next denomination, are small fractional parts ; seconds and thirds, place I under the seconds, and 6 under the thirds, and add all up thus : 6 thirds, 1 and 3 seconds are 4; then 3 and 2 are 5 , 5 and 9 are 14 , and 6 are 20 parts, which give 1 inch and 8 parts ; therefore place 8 under parts, and carry 1 to the inches, which will make up 8, as expressed in the example. TO MEASURE a solid log, find the content of the area by example second ; and then considering the thick ness ofthe log under so many inches, multiply the par ticular number of inches, and the content of the area together, which will be the product of the solid log. A ftranger, in purchasing mahogany, should take notice that he be allowed the broker's measurement, which always makes a considerable allowance for faults and waste, which the purchaser must run the hazard of, and consequently has an undoubted right to demand it from the seller ; except the log be partly opened, then a proportionable part of the hazard is over, in which case the overplus granted in the broker's measurement, is sometimes divided between the two parties ; or if the merchant allow to the buyer the broker's measurement, he charges so much per foot more upon the wood, esti mating the quantity by the said measurement. To MEASURE a packing case. The article to be packed should be correctly measured, and the sizes set at a rough sketch ofthe case, drawn to show uppermost that side or part of it which is to be left open for the con venience of receiving the article to be packed. Then MEA 269 be careful to place the dimensions, for the inside mea surement of the case, allowing for battons, and other package. When the packing case is closed up, and it is to be measured, take the outside measurement of the case, including the battons, which some do, and others only the outside without them, which is regulated by the price per foot charged to the customer. Having then ascertained the external dimensions, measure the top of the case by cross multiplication, and set down the con tent of the area, and double it for the bottom of the Then take the depth of the case, and the length of one side and an end, put together, and multiply the length by the depth of the case ; and finding the content as before, double this also, and add it to the content of top and bottom. The battons used in packing are a separate charge, and are generally measured by the foot-run. See PACKING. TO MEASURE for window curtains, the extremes ofthe architraves should be taken, with an allowance of at least an inch longer for the pulley rods. For a common festoon window lath, the allowance may be less, and sometimes the strict measurement will do. The mea surement in height depends upon circumstances. Ifthe room have not much dead wall above the window, the height may be taken from the top of the architrave. But if there be much dead wall above, and the curtain is required to have a deep drapery or valence, then it is usual to leave no more room between the window cornice and ceiling, than is necessary for taking off and putting on the cornice. TO MEASURE a room for a carpet, see GEOMETRY, in Supplement. To MEASURE for a pier glass , table, and chimney glass, it is common to take the opening ofthe architraves, and for the former the opening of the chimney, that is , 1 270 MEC for the sight measure of the chimney glass ; but for the pier glass, the opening or space between the two archi traves, includes in it the width of the frame ; and the length of the pier table is to be ruled in general , not always, by its breadth. The height of the surbase above the dado, must also govern the height of the table, taken from the underside of the top. TO MEASURE for rolling blinds and common blinds, the width is taken between bead and bead ; and the height of the rolling blind, from the head soffit of the window. MECHANICS, is considered as the doctrine of motion, being that science which shews the effect of powers, or moving forces, so far as they may be applied to engines. The mechanic powers are simply six, which, as they may be variously applied, are all that give motion and effect to the most complex machines ; the names of which are as follow : The lever, wheel in axis, or axis inperitrochio, thepulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw. But three of these powers are considered as compounds ; namely, the axis in peritrochio, the pulley and the screw . Hence the simple mechanic powers are but three, the axis, lever, and wedge. The axis, in peri trochio, seems to be a machine of itself, composed of an axis, and levers. The screw may also be considered as so many wedges fixed round the body of a cylinder or axis, and the pulley as an axis and lever, or as axis in peritrochio. But though they are thus reducable to three in number, yet, for the sake of conciseness in description, and universal application in the system of mechanics, it is found necessary to increase their num ber to six ; and if the balance be considered as a separate power, as some authors do, there are seven. But it is evident that the balance, strictly speaking, is rather a machine or instrument, by which, to ascertain STt MOD 271 or compare the velocities or gravity of different bodies, or matter, rather than a simple mechanic power. See Supplement. METOPE, in architecture, is the space between two tri glyphs in the Doric order. See the order under article COLUMN. MEZANINE, a kind of little story, called also an enter stole, is placed between two principal stories, and serves for an apartment for upper servants. MINUTE, in architecture, is the sixtieth part of the lower diameter of a column. MINIUM, a kind of red lead. See RED LEAD. MIRROR, from the French miroir, is generally applied to a particular kind of glass, either of a convex, or concave surface. Strictly considered, all polished bodies which are impervious, or which repel and reflect light, may be called mirrors. As an article in furniture, a mirror is a circular convex glass in a gilt frame, silvered on the concave side, by which the reflection of the rays of light are produced. The properties of such mirrors consist in their collecting the reflected rays into a point, by which the perspective of the room in which they are suspended, presents itself on the surface of the mirror, and produces an agreeable effect. On this account, as well as for the convenience of holding lights, they are now become universally in fashion, and are considered both as a useful and ornamental piece of furniture. MODILLIONS, in architecture, are rich ornaments in the entablatures of the Composite and Corinthian orders. See these orders under the term COLUMN. MODULE, in architecture, is a certain proportion assigned for the regulation of all the parts in an entire order. Some architects give only a semi-diameter, and others. the whole inferior diameter of a column for a module. This makes no other difference in architecture, except in the mode of expressing it ; for still the lower diameter 272 MUS of the column must be divided into 60 parts, and the same number of diameters given to the respective orders. If 30 minutes be the allowed module, then the lower diameter is said to be 2 modules. If 60 minutes be as signed, than it is only 1 module ; and the intercolum niations of columns must be thus regulated. See article COLUMN. Some architects recommend 20 minutes as preferable for a module, because it proportions the entire order without a fraction. MEGGELLUP, used by painters, is a mixture of tur pentine, mastic varnish, and linseed oil, with which they apply their glazings. Another preparation is, of one part of genuine mastic varnish, and two parts ofpale drying oil, which when shaken together will appear like a jelly; but when applied, will prove clear and trans parent as it dries. MONOPTERE, a kind of round temple, without walls, having a dome supported by columns. MONUMENT, a building destined to preserve the me mory of some deceased person, or those who raise it. Such are of triumphal arches, mausoleums, and pyra mids, columns, pedestals, busts, &c. MORTICE, in carpentry and cabinet making, is an ob long square hole, cut by a chissel made for that purpose, which hole is to receive another piece of cut wood called a tenon. MOSAIC-WORK, is an assemblage of little pieces of glass, marble, precious stones, &c. of various colours, cut square, and cemented on a ground of stucco. MOULDINGS. See Supplement. MUSES, from Mural a song, music, or poetry. The nine muses of the heathen, who were fabled to preside over poetry, music, and the liberal arts. Their names were Calliope, Clio, Erato, Thalia, Euterpe, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, and Urania. NEW 273 Under the article GRECIAN DINING TABLE, I have noticed that the Greeks frequently dined in companies of nine, seated in three couches, three in each-which see. MUTULES, those ornaments placed under the corona of the Doric cornice ; perpendicularly over the tryglyph, and are exactly the same width, both being 30 minutes, exclusive of any projecting member. N NAIADS, from YEO, neo, to flow, are the nymphs of the floods. They were thought to preside over rivers and fountains ; hence in painting and ornaments they are represented as in the action of pouring water out of urns. NAILS, of which there are various kinds used in cabinet and upholstery branches. Stucco nails are with round brass heads with points, from 1 inch to 9 or 10 inches long, necessary in fixing large looking glasses. Screw nails from one- eighth of an inch to 3 or 4 inches long. Nails for packing case work, with broad points and flat heads-when used the broad side of the point of these nails should be placed to cross the grain to prevent its splitting. NAVE, from Naos a temple, generally used to signify the body of a church, reaching from the rail or balluster of the choir to the chief door. NEWEL is the upright post of the hand rail of a staircase ; or in winding staircases it is used to denote the post which bears the ends of the steps round which they turn . T 274 NIG NICHE, in architecture, is a hollow sunk in a wall, for figures to standin : sometimes they are used to place tripods in for ornament, or to receive a light. The height of niches ought to be more than twice their width ; the plan ofa niche is always semicircular, and the top is a quarter of a sphere or of a canopy shape. Niches should be placed at the height of the pedestal of the columns or pilasters that accompany them. When the columns have no pedestals, a niche may be raised higher than their base, in which case there may be a pannel or a table under the niche. NIGHT TABLE, a useful piece of furniture for night ' occasions. Common night tables have a tray top, with holes on each side to lift them up ; the doors of the cup board part are sometimes reeded, and at other times fold ; the seat part draws out in front like a common drawer, and contains a pan hid from the eye by a deep front rail , which is sometimes made to appear like two drawers with knobs. or handles, and sometimes as a pannel with hollow corners, in which case the handle is usually put in the center of the pannel. To assist the motion of the seat in drawing it out, there are small brass rollers screwed to the bottom of the feet ; and it is to be ob served that the legs of the seat are cut diagonal wise, to join to those which support the cupboard part ; and for this purpose the workmen get out the front legs so much thicker one way as to admit the saw to cut the leg in that form, and allow somewhat of substance ofwood with which to fit the front to , and they plane the super fluous wood of the upper part down to it. The usual size of these night tables is 22 inches in front, and from back to front from 18 inches to 20 ; the height 32 inches, and that of the seat 16 inches from the ground. Balance night tables are such as are made to have the appearance of a small commode, stand OAK 275 ing upon legs: when it is used the seat part presses down to a proper height by the hand, and afterwards it rises by means of lead weights, hung to the seat, by lines passing over pullies at each end, all which are inclosed in a case. There are also night tables to imitate the appearance of a small lobby chest of drawers, having the top hinged behind, so that it may lift up to a perpendicular position. The front part of these, as far as from the top to the seat, is made to fold in ; and when out has the appearance of drawers . Night stools are ofa common construction, hav ing merely a top to fold back, and a seat fixed within, deep rails framed into four square legs ; the size of these is in front from 18 to 20 inches, and from front to back 16 to 17 inches, the height 16 or 17 inches. O OAK, which botanists term quercus, the Latin name for the oak tree. Of this species of wood, Linnæus distinguishes fourteen kinds, amongst which are the ilex or ever green oak, and the saber or cork tree : but the principal dif ference is between the stone oak and red oak, which are cultivated in the English forests ; but there is certainly a greater variety amongstthe foreign oaks, which are both large in body as well as in branches. Their roots, and particularly the heart root, run deep and perpendicularly in the ground, and are proportioned in size to the ample nourishment they have to convey. The growth ofthe oak is extremely slow , but though it grows slowly, this is compensated by the length of time which it stands . Some authors say that it for an hundred years, grows stands for an hundred, and is an hundred years in decay ing. This tree has a great quantity of sap, on which 276 OBE account its big bark is liable to be effected by frosts, which in cold winters make it often crack and open. This tree suffers much by the latter blights and frosts in the spring, and is therefore the last of all trees in shewing its leaves ; and on these accounts it does not some years produce acorns . The timber of the stone is harder and whiter than that of the red oak, which has a reddish colour. The leaves also of the stone oak are smaller, and of a darker green than those of the red. This noble tree, though of delicate growth, is most successfully produced from the seed or acorn . The oak, however, which is transplanted, never attains so great a height as the tree from the acorn, but spreads itself horizontally, and runs into branches. Oaks designed for timber, should be raised from acorns sown in the places where the trees are to remain in order to which, a sufficient quantity of acorns should be provided in the autumn. The acorns should be taken from upright, tall, and vigorous trees, which should be gathered from under the trees as soon as may be after they are fallen, and if possible in a dry time. These acorns should be kept dry, and after put into dry sand till the time of sowingor planting them, which is at the end of November. The oak used by cabinet-makers is imported from Russia, Norway, Sweden, and the United States of Holland, some in logs, and some cut into various thicknesses. OBELISK. Is a quadrangular pyramid , high and slender, raised as an ornament in some public place, or as a monument of some public transaction. Obelisks are generally built of one entire picce of stone, and are thus distinguished from pyramids, which are composed of many. The height of the obelisk is nine or ten times the size of the base. The top of the obelisk is OIL 277 one half of its base, and sometimes a little more, but never less. It appears that obelisks were of very an tique date, and were first used for transmitting to posterity the principal precepts of philosophy, which were engraven on them in hieroglyphical characters. OBLIQUE. See GEOMETRY, in Supplement - and OBLONG. for all other terms of this nature . OBTUSE. OCCASIONAL TABLE, as in plate 58. The design of which is so plain as to require little or no description. To a stranger however, it may be necessary to observe, that the top shewn partly out may be turned over, and pushed in so as to inclose the whole, and hide the chess board. The triangular figures on the bottom are of white, and sometimes black wood, and the holes on the edge are for pegs. OIL. Of this useful article there are various kinds. It is drawn from several natural bodies, as animal and vege table substances. Drying oil for painters, is made by boiling linseed oil, about one quart with two ounces of litharge of gold, till the litharge be pretty well dissolved, and the oil turn thick. Some put a little sugar of lead into it, and then straining the mixture through a cloth, it should be put into a stone bottle for use, and if it should be found too thick, it may easily be diluted with a proper portion of spirits of turpentine. Some make drying oil with red lead and umber ; half an ounce to two pounds of linseed oil, and boil them together as before. Oil of nuts is used in fine paintings, where bright whites are required, because this oil does not hurt the white. Oil of spikes, made of lavender flowers, serves to make the colours run better, and suits to rub over a picture, when it is too dry for retouching and finishing. 278 ORT Oil for staining mahogany. See under ALKANET ROOT. 1 OPTICS, from orixes, belonging to the sight, is that science which treats of the element of light, and the nature of vision in general. As perspective is a branch of optics, we shall touch a little upon the subject under the article PERSPECTIVE, in Supplement. ORITORY. In architecture, is a closet or small apart ment in a large house, near a bed-chamber, used by the Romanists for private devotion . The oritory contains an altar and crucifix. But if Christ be in our heart, the oritory wants no crucifix. ORDER, or the ORDERS, in architecture, are five. Three of which are Grecian, and two Roman. See under article COLUMN, where the entire orders are treated upon, and their perspective representations given, together with profiles at large, and their true measure ments in minutes ; and see under VOLUTE, where the capitals are drawn in perspective at large, and the bases in plate 11 , under the article BASE . ORNAMENTS, in architecture, are used to signify all the sculptor, or carved work, with which a piece of architecture is enriched ; as the acanthus and olive leaves in the capitals of the orders, and their other decorations in their friezes and entabiatures. ORPIMENT. Is a combination of the calx of arsenic with sulphur, and is of a yellow colour. By a great heat this combination assumes a red colour, which is then termed red orpiment. OCHRE or OKER, the name of several earths used in painting. The most common kinds are red and yellow, though there are brown, blue, and green. ORTHOGRAPHY, from Opos orthos right, and rpaq grapho to write, which in perspective, denotes the representation of any object on a fore right plane ; that PAC 279 0 is, a plain parallel to the eye of the spectator, and per pendicular to the horizon. See PERSPECTIVE. OVOLO or OVUM. See MOULDINGS, in Supplement. OVAL. See GEOMETRY, in Supplement. P PACKING. This is a concern in the cabinet branch that requires great care, particularly when the article to be packed is a large looking-glass. Light japanned chairs for bed-rooms, are generally packed in slight skeleton cases, after being papered over. Those that put the chairs side to side in the case, put a whole width batton up each end of the case to receive the hanging batton the whole length of the case, which is screwed to the under side of the rails of the chairs. The first three chairs. being fixed, they put them down to their place, and turn the other three down upon them, and marking their place onthe batton, they are taken out again, and screwed to it as before with two screws to each side rail. They then screw the first three to their place, observing to hang the chair legs about an inch clear of the bottom of the case. They then put stays crosswise under the long batton, to keep it from working in the middle. Lastly, they put the other down to their place with their legs up, and the seats to each other, taking care that they do not rub or touch each other in any part, and then screwing stays across as before. Others put the hanging battons across the case, consequently every two chairs requires. two short battons screwed to the under side of the rail, as in the other method. This last way requires a broad batton on the sides of the skeleton case, placed to answer the height of the chair seat, to receive the short battons crosswise. In this way of packing they put the chairs 280 PAC the other way in the case ; that is, with their fronts parallel to the ends of the case, and screw them in , two and two together. In this way the case requires to be more than half a foot longer than in the other ; but the other requires to be broader, so that it is difficult to say which way ought to be preferred. When chairs are gilt, or richly finished for drawing-rooms, they require a close case of full half inch deal, but the packing is performed in the same way, with greater care. " PACKING CASES for large glasses should have their sides from two to three inch deal thick, and are either to be half lapped or dovetailed at the corners. The bottom and top of such cases are made of inch deal, with three half-width battons of inch stuff running lengthwise, and well nailed to keep the top, &c. firm, that the case may not easily warp when the glass is in to endanger its being broken. And it is usual, especially if the glass be conveyed by water, to grove and slip the edges of the boards, and even to pitch the joints after wards, to resist any dashes of salt water that may occur in the voyage, which would totally ruin the silvering by the slightest access to it. When they are conveyed by land, gluing brown paper over the joints in the inside will be sufficient, provided the case be otherwise well made. Whether by sea or by land the case should if possible be kept in an upright position on one of its sides. In packing one of these glasses, it is necessary to place crosswise on the bottom, three half battons, on which to rest the blind frame of the glass ; taking care to have large brass fastners screwed to the sides of the blind frame, so as to answer the place of the three battons last mentioned, that the blind frame may be screwed to them. When the glass is in its place, it is common to cover the plate with some kind of paper ; and lastly , to put at least a batton at each end over the glass, half PAT 281 deal width, which are screwed to the sides of the case. These last battons, if the depth of the case be properly taken at first, will be level with the edge of the case, and will therefore prove a sure defence to the top. and prevent it from being pressed down in the centre to en danger the glass. The glass is then enclosed, and the top not nailed but screwed down with two inch screw nails, two to each board, and their joints pitched and canvassed over. PAINTING. See Supplement. PAPER, from zaupos, papuros ; the name of a cele brated Egyptian plant, which was so much used by the ancients to write upon. See Book. PAPER HANGINGS are a considerable article in the upholstery branch, and being occasionally used for rooms of much elegance, it requires taste and skill rightly to conduct this branch of the business. See PAPER, in Supplement. PARAPET, from parapetto, Italian, a save breast, or little wall, serving either as a rest for the arm, or as an inclosure about a quay, bridge, terrace, &c. PARLOUR. See DINING ROOM. PASTE. Used among upholsterers, is a preparation of wheaten flour, boiled up and incorporated with water. The flour should be mixed with the cold water so as to leave no lumps, which should be little thicker than milk before boiling it ; and if the paste be wanted of a very tenacious quality, gum arabic should be dissolved and mixed with it. When this mixture is boiling, it should be constantly stirred about, till it thicken and become like a strong jelly, which then, after this degree of boiling, is fit for use. PATENT. Denotes something that stands open or ex panded ; thus a leaf is said to be patent when it stands almost at right angles with the stalk. PATENT is however more generally used to denote the 1 P 282 PAT security granted by his majesty's letters patent to any original invention in arts, trade, or commerce, to pre vent others from imitating and vending the same article. In order to obtain a patent, a specification of its original invention must be prepared, and drawings madeto repre sent and explain it, and delivered into an office in Chan cery-lane, where the public have an opportunity of in specting such drawings with their specifications ; and if it be discovered that any article of a similar con struction has been made prior to this by any other person, an appeal may be made, and the patent ren dered null and void. There are a few articles in the cabinet branch under patents, three or four different kinds of dining-tables, and two or three four-post bed steads. The bedsteads are contrived as much as possible to prevent the harbour of vermin, and have therefore brass joints. One of them has for this purpose the pillars to screw off from the frame, with a plate of brass to cover the joints ; the other bedstead has brass dovetail tenons, which slip into sockets of brass fixed into the pillars, which is the only material thing wherein it differs from the preceding one. The diningtables are constructed so as to take up little room, and yet be con veniently large. This is the object of the design, and for which purpose the frames of two of these tables are made to draw out, and loose flaps are inserted between those which are fixed on the drawing part of these tables ; and the superiority of the one to the other chiefly consists in the portableness of its parts, having the flaps to inclose in the part which draws out, and the legs to screw off and inclosed with them. The other table is on pillar and claws, and the drawing part by which it is increased in length, is in the block to which the pillar is fixed, but the loose flaps, inserted as in the other, can not be inclosed within the frame, but must be, when PED 283

not used, put into some convenient place in the room where the dining table stands. PEDESTAL. That part of an order on which the column refts. The pedeſtal, which the Greeks call stylobates, contains three principal parts, a plinth, dado, and cor nice ; for the peculiarities of which, and their propor tions, see the plates of the orders under the term COLUMN, where observe the pedeſtal of each order is in mere outline, placed between the entire order in per spective, and the profile of the entablature at large. PEDESTAL is also used to signify that part in cabinet furniture made nearly to the proportion and figure of a pedeſtal in architecture. These are generally placed at the end of sideboards, and are designed for holding plates for dinner ; for which purpose there are two wooden racks, generally made of oak, in which the plates are placed. The plinth part of these pedeſtals is generally formed into a drawer, containing an iron ſtand and heater, which diffuses a warm air to the plates, and keeps them in proper temperature at the time of dining. These pe deftals are lined with tin completely over on the inside to prevent the heat from injuring the wood. And it may be necessary further to observe, that when there are two pedeſtals to a sideboard, one of them is generally fitted up in the inside, either with plain drawers, or as a cupboard. On such pedeftals is generally placed a vase. See plate 59 , and the term VASE. PEDIMENT, in architecture. Vitruvius calls the pedi ment Fastigia ; which signifies a roof raised or pointed in the middle, which form, amongst the Romans, was confined to their temples ; but afterwards Cæsar obtained leave to cover his house with a pointed roof after the manner of the temples. The parts of a pediment, are the tympanum and the cornice. The tympanum is the naked ofthe cornice, and is not always triangular or 284 PIL pointed, but sometimes circular. The cornice is a part of the upper members of the cornice of the entablature on which the tympanum rests ; and sometimes the tym panumic cornice contains all the members of that in the entablature. For the height of the tympanum, and the management of the raking mouldings, see MOULD INGS, in Supplement. PEMBROKE TABLE, a name given to a kind of break fast table, from the name of the lady who first gave orders for one ofthem, and who probably gave the first idea of such a table to the workmen, of which there is a design in plate 61 , which can require no explanation to any workman. The size of such tables, are from 3 feet S inches to 4 feet wide, that is when open, as shewn in the design ; and from 34 to 3 feet long, when the flaps are down. The width of the bed should never be less than 21 inches ; but in general they are from 22 to 23 inches, and their height never inore than 2 feet 4 inches, including castors. PERSPECTIVE. - See Supplement. PIER, in building, denotes a mass of stone, &c. opposed by way offortress to the force of the sea or a great river, for the security of ships that lie at harbour. In house architecture, it is used to denote that part of a wall which is between the windows. Hence the term pier table, in cabinet work, which are made to fit in between the architraves of the windows, and rise above the sur base. See plate 63, in which design the top is supposed to be of marble, the shelf of wood, or fret round it, except the front. The legs are to be screwed and reeded, and the diamond part in the rail may be brass or gilt wood. -See PIER, in Supplement. PILASTER, in architecture, is a square column, bearing the same proportion to those which are round, accord ing to their different orders. The pilaster is either in with a brass border • PIN 285 sular, placed against or sunk into a wall, shewing one fourth or fifth part of its thickness before it. Pilasters are very commonly introduced into cabinet work, and are formed, sometimes only by lines let into slips of wood about 2 inches wide, placed upright at the angles of fur niture. At other times they project one eighth or quarter of an inch before the work, and are cross banded ; and sometimes they are formed by sinking into the ground work, and have small beads or other mouldings mitered round the inside of the sunk pannel . PILLAR, or column, in architecture, see COLUMN ; but in cabinet making, it is generally used to signify the posts which support the tefter of a bed ; and a single massy one on which the top of claw tables rest ; for the latter kind, see plate 65. PINE-TREE. This kind comprehends all the fir and larch trees. Some authors make out 10 or 14 different species of this genus. First, the wild pine, which grows naturally on the mountains in Italy, and the south of France. This tree grows to a large size ; and the branches extend to a considerable distance. Second, The stone pine is a tall evergreen tree, and a native of Italy, and Third, The Scots fir or pine is common throughout Scotland, whence its name, but is also found in most of the other countries of Europe. The wood of this tree is the red or yellow deal, efteemed the most durable of any. The cones of this tree are small, pyramidal, and end in narrow points, of a light colour, and the seeds small. Fourth, The yew leaved fir is a tall evergreen, and a native of Scotland, Sweden, and Germany. This species includes the silver fir, and balm of Gilead fir. The silver fir is a noble upright tree, and they have been found in the vallies of Switzerland to the height of 40 yards, and 286 PIN more than 18 inches in diameter in the middle. The cones are large and grow erect ; and when the warm weather comes on they soon shed their seeds, and there fore they ought to be gathered before that happen. The balm of Gilead fir, is the moft desirable of all the pines, as an agreeable ornament, both on account of the great fragrance of its leaves, and the beauty of its branches, which are richly decorated with them. The silver fir is very hardy, and will grow in most soils ; but makes the greatest progress in rich and loamy earth. The balm of Gilead must be planted in a good soil, as it will not live long in any other. Fifth, The European spruce fir, a native of the northern parts of Europe and of Asia, includes the Nor way spruce, and long coned Cornish fir. This species of fir is not only beautiful but useful, producing valua ble timber, and is of the white kind, so desirable to workmen. From this tree pitch is extracted. The leaves of this tree are remarkably beautiful, being nar row and pointed ; and the cones are to the length of 8 or 10 inches. Sixth, The American, or Newfoundland spruce fir, a native of Canada, Pennsylvania, and other parts of North America, includes three varieties, the white, red and black Newfoundland spruce. Seventh, The hemlock fir, a native of the preceding places, has nothing in it remarkable ; but the wood is tolerably good. Eighth, The oriental fir, or a native of the East, is a low but elegant tree, of little use, except ornament. Ninth, The North American white pine, which some times grows to the height of 100 feet, and upwards. Of this tree the masts of ships are made : and on this account, in Queen Ann's time, there was a law made for the preservation of these trees, and for the encou PIN 287 ragement of their growth in America. Within fifty years paft, they have been planted in Great Britain in considerable plenty. Tenth, The swamp pine is a tall evergreen tree, a native of the swamps of Virginia and Canada. This name seems to include a number of varieties of the American pines, which differ but little in their descrip tions. Eleventh, The pinus cedrus, or the cedar pine, called by the ancients the cedrus magnus, great cedar. It is a coniferous evergreen. Its cones, which are round and large, consist of smooth scales, and stand erect ; and the leaves narrow, small, and thick set. This is the cedar of which it is supposed Solomon's temple and palace were built, or the cedar of the mount Libanus, which seems to have been both spreading and lofty, according to Scripture allusions. The main trunk rises to 10 or 12 feet, which have been measured from So to 40 feet in circumference, from which large trunk ascends thick and lofty branches, which rising out of so large a circumference, muft give a vast spreading ap pearance ; and if the descriptions be accurate, these branches must have risen to 100 feet in height ; and were like so many large trees springing from an enormous trunk. • Twelfth, The larch tree. It grows naturally upon the Alps and Apennines, and of late has been propagated in Britain. It is of quick growth, and the trunk rises to 50 feet or more. Of this tree there are a few varieties, which grow in America and Siberia. It is of a durable quality, and will harden almost to an impene trable degree under water. It emits in the air a resinous substance, which diffuses itself into the grain and over the surface of the wood, so as to resist water : and is on that account used for the covering of roofs in Switzer 288 PLA land. From this tree is extracted what is called the Venice turpentine, which by incision flows copiously from it. sun. All these pines are propagated by sowing the seeds in March, on a bed of light earth exposed to the morning The way to get the seeds out of the cones, is to lay them before a gentle fire, which will cause the cells to open, and then the seeds may be easily taken out ; and the surest way to preserve the seeds , is to let them remain in the cones till the time of sowing. The seeds, when sown, must be covered half an inch thick with fine light earth, and the beds watered at times when the weather is dry ; and in about six weeks the plants will make their appearance. In the latter end of April, in the following year, they may be removed into beds of fresh earth, placing them at 10 inches distance every way, where, remaining for two years, may afterwards be planted where they are to continue for maturity of growth. PLAIN-TREE, of which there are two species. One is a native of the East, and the other of North America. They are trees which grow to a prodigious magnitude, and make a most noble appearance. The Virginia plain tree, will grow extremely well from cuttings, which should be planted about the beginning of October, upon a moist soil , and should be watered in dry weather ; in which case they make great progress, and in a few years after planting, will afford noble trees. Both the species thrive best in a moist soil, and near rivulets of water. PLAIN- TREE is a very white wood, close in grain, and rather tough ; and in many places in the country used by cabinet-makers instead of beech, for painted chairs, or the fly joint rails of card and pembroke tables. POL 289 PLINTH, from de plinthos, a brick, is the lower moft part of a column, and on which the whole refts. It is also applied to mouldings mitered round the bottoms of table legs and bed pillars. POLISH-Is to give brightness to any subftance. The method of polishing amongst cabinet- makers is various, as required in different pieces of work. Sometimes they polish with bees wax and a cork for inside work , where it would be improper to use oil. The cork is rubbed hard on the wax to spread it over the wood, and then they take fine brick-duft and sift it through a ſtocking on the wood, and with a cloth the duft is rubbed till it clears away all the clammings which the wax leaves on the surface. 3 At other times they polish with soft wax, which is a mixture of turpentine and bees wax, which renders it soft, and facilitates the work of polishing. Into this mixture a little red oil may occasionally be put, to help the colour of the wood. This kind of polishing requires no brick-duft ; for the mixture being soft, a cloth of itself, will be sufficient to rub it off with. The general mode of polishing plain cabinet work is however, with oil and brick-duft ; in which case, the oil is either plain linseed or stained with alkanet root-See ALKANET ROOT. Ifthe wood be hard, the oil should be left stand ing upon it for a week; but if soft, it may be polished in two days. The brick-duft and oil should then be rubbed together, which in a little time will become a putty under the rubbing cloth, in which ſtate it should be kept under the cloth as much as possible ; for this kind of putty will infallibly secure a fine polish by continued rubbing ; and the polisher should by all means avoid the application of fresh brick-duft, by which the unskilful hand will frequently ruin his work inſtead of improving it and to prevent the necessity of supplying himself U • 290 ΡΟΜ with fresh brick-dust he ought to lay on a great quantity at first, carefully sifted through a gauze stocking ; and he should notice if the oil be too dry on the surface of the work before he begin, for in this case it should be re oiled, that it may compose a sufficient quantity of the polishing substance, which should never be altered after the polishing is commenced, and which ought to continue till the wood by repeated friction become warm, at which time it will finish in a bright polish, and is finally to be cleared off with the bran of wheaten flour. Chairs are generally polished with a hardish compo sition of wax rubbed upon a polishing brush, with which the grain of the wood is impregnated with the composition, and afterward well rubbed off without any dust or bran. The composition I recommend is as follows : take bees wax and a small quantity of turpen tine in a clean earthen pan, and set it over a fire till the wax unites with the turpentine, which it will do bycon stant stirring about ; add to this a little red lead finely ground upon a stone, together with a small portion of fine Oxford ochre, to bring the whole to the colour of brisk mahogany. Lastly, when you take it off the fire, add a little copal varnish to it, and mix it well together, then turn the whole into a bason of water, and while it is yet warm, work it into a ball, with which the brush is to be rubbed as before observed. And observe, with a ball of wax and brush kept for this purpose entirely, fur niture in general may be kept in good order. POMEGRANATE TREE, is a native of Italy, Spain, and Africa, and may be propagated by laying down the branches in the spring, which in one year's time will take root. This is a mere garden tree, and in England can only be valuable for the beauty of its scarlet coloured flowers, which, with its fruit, is reckoned astringent in medicine. fumww POR 291 POPLAR TREE, ofwhich there are five species, according to Linnæus. 1. The white poplar. 2. The trembling poplar. 3. The black poplar. 4. TheCarolina poplar. And the 5th poplar of the same country. Others say, the alba poplar is the first which grows naturally in , the temperate parts of Europe. 2. The white. 3. The black. 4. The aspen poplar. And the 5th the Carolina poplar. The first of these is esteemed a useful wood, but of a soft texture. The bark of this tree is remarkable for being a cure to intermitting fevers. The wood of the black and white poplars are also useful. The trembling poplar is of no use but for ornament. PORCH, in architecture, a kind of vestibule supported by columns ; much used in the ancient temples, halls, churches, &c. The columns of a porch are insular, usually crowned with a pediment. When a porch had four columns in front, it was called tetrastyle, when six hexastyle, and if eight octastyle . The word porch is from Toa, stoa, a public portico at Athens, in which Zeno, the philosopher, taught. Hence his followers were called stoics, PORTAL, a small gate, distinguished by this name from a larger, when there are two together. PORTICO, a kind of gallery, on the ground, or a piazza encompassed with arches supported with columns, where people maywalk under cover. The word is derived from porta, gate or door, which are sometimes made with a roof projecting and supported with columns, hence the idea of a portico, which is applied to any disposition of columns which form a sort of gallery, without any re lation to doors or gates. PORTLAND STONE -from a peninsula in Dorsetshire, of great strength both by nature and art, being sur rounded with inaccessible rocks. In this peninsula the 292 PYO quarries are found where the noted Portland stone so much used in London, is dug. PORTRAIT, in painting, is the representation of a person done from the life, and is distinguished from history painting where such resemblance is usually disregarded. Portraits done as large as life, are painted in oil, but when in miniature, with water colours, crayons, pas tiles , &c. POUCH TABLE, or Table with a Bag, used bythe ladies to work at, in which bag they deposit their fancy needle work. Of such tables there are two designs in plate 67, where observe, that the work bags of both tables are sus pended to a frame which draws forward, in which frame is a lock which shuts its bolt up into the under edge ofthe rail of the top. They are also used as chess tables oc casionally, and the design on the left shews the top with the chess side down, contrary to that on the right, which is also capable of being drawn out and turned down. The design on the left hand was taken from one executed by Mr. M'Lean in Mary-le-bone street, near Tottenham court road, who finishes these small articles in the neatest manner. That on the right is purely my own design, which has not been yet manufactured. The frets on the edges of both tables are of brass, and the ground ought to be of black rose wood when they are required to be elegant, otherwise they may be made very neat of mahogany. PROTRACTOR, an instrument used in drawing, by which any angle is laid down with dispatch. See DRAW ING, in Supplement. PYCNOSTYLE, is the smallest intercolumniation of the orders, allowing only one diameter and an half. This intercolumniation was chiefly used in the composite order in rich and magnificent buildings. AREPBAEVEQU 2QU SCALad20 qu口 GUOL RAB 293 PYRAMID, in geometry, is a solid, standing on a tri angular, square, or polygonal basis, and terminating in a point at the top. Pyramids are sometimes used to pre serve the memory of singular events, and sometimes to transmit to posterity the glory and magnificence of princes. They are considered as a symbol of immor tality, and therefore used sometimes as funeral monu ments. Q QUADRANGLE. Is a figure consisting of four sides and angles. QUADRANT. The fourth part of a circle. QUARTETTO TABLE. A kind of small work table made to draw out of each other, and may be used sepa rately, and again inclosed within each other when not wanted. See TRIO TABLE. QUASHAWOOD. A yellowish wood from the West Indies, ofthe colour of satin wood, but lighter and softer in quality, and for its bitterness, used sometimes as a sub stitute for hops. QUILT. See COUNTERPANE. QUIRK-BEAD. Amongst joiners, is one flush or ever. withthe ground on which it is worked. QUOINS, in architecture, denote the corners of brick and stone walls. It is particularly used for the stone work at the angles of brick buildings. When these stand out beyond the brick work, tl : eir edges being chamfered off, they are called rustic quoins. R RABBETING. Is a half channelling, or groveing the edge of any thing to receive some other piece of wool: as in wardrobe doors, the edge of the frame is rabbeted 294 RAY within about one quarter of an inch from the front. But if the pannel is to be flush with the framing, then the pannel must be rabbeted also to receive that of the door framing. RACK. This term , amongst cabinet-makers, is applied to a brass plate with a number of square holes, into which a thumb spring catches, to support at any height, a glass made to rise in gentlemen's shaving tables. There are also brass rack pulleys used to keep the line of French window curtains tight, by which they may be either closed or drawn apart. RACK is likewise used to denote a slip of wood cut into notches for the purpose of supporting moveable book shelves. See GROOVE. RADIANT, in optics, is any point of a visible object whence rays proceed. RADIUS. See GEOMETRY, in Supplement. RAFTERS, in building, are those pieces of timber in a roof which meet in an angle at the top, and are, at the foot, tenoned into the girder, extending the width of the roof. Hip Rafters, are those which form the angles of a hipped roof. RAKING PEDIMENT or Moulding. See MOULDING, in Supplement. RATAN, a kind of bastard mahogany. RATEEN, a thick woollen stuff, quilled, woven on a loom with four treddles, like serges and other stuffs that have the whale or quilling. Rateens are chiefly manu factured in France, Holland, and Italy, and are mostly used in linings . Frieze is a sort of coarse rateen, and the drugget is a rateen half linen and half woollen. RAY, in optics, a line of light propagated from a radiant point through an unresisting medium. RAY 295 In perspective, many of the lines peculiar to that science come under the notion of rays, because vision is performed by means of rays issuing in right lines from every point of an illuminated object to the pupil of the eye ; at which small point they enter, and fall upon the retina or bottom of the eye, and produce the sensation ofthe object viewed. Hence visual lines, in perspective, are all those drawn from objects to be represented, to the centre of the picture or point of sight, a section of which on the plane of the picture is the true representa tion of the object on the said plane. The principal ray of a picture is conceived of as a line drawn from its centre perpendicular to the eye of the spectator ; which ray has no reference to the figure of objects on the plane of the picture, but to the degree of light by which we perceive them. It being therefore the shortest ray, it is necessarily the strongest ; and hence it is called the principal ray, or, as it is sometimes termed, the direct radial. Every other ray falls with less force on the picture, or more philosophically speak ing, issues with less strength from the object to the eye, in proportion to their obliquity. Whence it follows, that the brightest lights ought always to fall on those objects nearest the eye, or in the centre of the picture. Rays reflected, are those rays of light, which after falling upon bodies not transparent, are thrown back again, but with less strength ; that is , reflected is not so strong as direct light. How strikingly is this exemplified in the difference between the direct light of the meridian. sun, and his reflected rays from the opaque body of the moon. See PAINTING. Rays refracted, are those rays of light, which after falling upon any medium enter its surface, and is thereby bent either towards or from a perpendicular to the one on which they fell or the refracting medium. Hence a • 296 REP small stick put into water always appears broken by refraction, and shorter in that part under the water by reflection. RECESS, from recessus, to retire or withdraw. In archi tecture it denotes a break, or hollow place in a wall, or a small place of retirement, or secresy . Recesses are frequently left in the walls of rooms for the purpose of receiving sideboards, bookcases, and other pieces of furniture. rays of RED, one of the simple primary colours of the light. The red rays, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is of all others least refrangible . Hence he supposes the different degrees of refrangibility to arise from the dif ferent magnitudes of the luminous particles of which the rays consist. REEDING, amongst cabinet makers, is a mode by which they ornament table legs, bed pillars, &c. and is certainly one ofthe most substantial of any yet adopted. It is much preferable to fluting or cabling in point of strength ; and in look, much superior to the latter ; and almost equal to the former. To me, reeding appears almost the only ornament that has escaped the notice of the ancients, as I do not recollect any instance of reeding in any part of ancient architecture. When reeding is introduced on flat surfaces, there ought always to be 3, 5, or 7, and so If reeds on, and the odd one should be in the centre. be on a table leg, or bed pillar, &c. there should be one on the centre facing the eye. Reeds look with additional beauty in some cases when a small fillet is introduced between them as in plate 9, No. 1 . RELIEVO. Sce SCULPTURE. REPOSE. See PAINTING, in Supplement. REPRESENTATION, generally denotes some kind of ROD 297 description, or is the delineation of objects on a plain surface. Hence it may be considered as the effect of good drawing and painting ; for if these are not well per formed, the attempt to copy or describe an object is a misrepresentation of it, and in some cases to a degree, which may only deserve the title of a caricature instead of a representation. RETURN, amongst cabinet makers, is the falling away ofany moulding from the front side, as the returns of pediments, and the mouldings which break from the fronts of pilasters, are called returns. REWARD, in painting, is represented by a man clothed in white with a golden girdle, a palm with an oak branch in his right hand, and a crown and garland in his left. The oak and palm denote the honour and profit which are the reward of laudable industry. RIBAND, a fillet of silk ; a narrow web of silk. Some horse fire screens are balanced by a riband, which passes over or through the top rail of the screen, and has a lead weight fixed to it, which weight is made circular, and covered first with canvas, and then with the silk riband in the form of a rose or knot. RIGA TIMBER, or Fir Wood, from the city of Riga, in Swedeland. The city stands by the Baltic sea, at the mouth of the river Dwina, where there is an excellent harbour. RISING. This is a motion given to different parts of fur niture, as a rising desk to write at ; a rising horse for the purpose of supporting a flap or top of a table to write at ; a rising dressing glass, and various rising screens, which the contracted plan of this work will not allow to exemplify on plates. ROD, for window curtains, are of various kinds, the common curtain rod is merely a piece of straight worked 298 ROM iron, with a hole at each end to slip on to screw hooks, made for the purpose, The French window rod is made of brass, about three quarters of an inch diameter, having a pulley at the left end, and two at the right, one ofwhich is fixed in a pin perpendicular to the rod. At present they frequently make the French rods of satin wood, two to a window, to lap past each other about 3 inches in the centre ; so that the curtain draws half on each side separately, or only half of it maybe drawnat once : andwhen they are both drawn out, they lap over each other by means ofthe rod thus made, so that the light is entirelyexcluded in the middle. These rods havethe same pulleys as those made in brass, which are morticed through the satin wood rod, and are fixed in with wire, and the hanging pulley at the right hand is all of brass, and screwed into the rod. To keep the ends of the rod secure they are hooped with brass, let-on to the ends, which are filed level with the wood, and cleaned off, with the rod. Rods, for beds, are made to circumscribe the foot pillars, and the sides of the rod screw off about 8 inches from the pillars towards the head end, where the side rods slip on to a screw hook. The rod of a tester for a canopy bed is made in two parts, which lap past each other, and admit the curtains to come close in the centre, or to draw back to each other behind. These rods are made with a long plate at each end bent down about an inch, with two or three screw holes, with which to fix them to the under side of of the rail. ROLLING BLIND. See BLIND. ROMAN ORDER. See the COMPOSITE ORDER, plate 34, and under COLUMN. This order is said to be invented by the Romans in the time of Augustus, and was by RUS 299 them placed above the rest, to shew that they considered themselves as lords over the other nations. ROOF. The uppermost part of a building, which includes not onlythe timber work but the covering, which is sometimes of slate , tiles, lead, &c. There are various pitches or angles assigned for roofs. The moſt generally approved pitch is that of a right angle. If a roof be higher than of this angle, the covering is more apt to fall off, and if it be lower it lays too much stress upon the timber work. When a building is extraordinary wide, to avoid a high roof and too extensive a span, they form a double roof. In the most primitive times, roofs were quite flat, with a parapet wall around them ; this appears from some passages of sacred writ as well as other writings. ROUT CHAIRS. Small painted chairs with rush bottoms, lent out by cabinet makers for hire, as a supply of seats at general entertainments, or feasts ; hence their name rout chair. RUDD's TABLE. A kind of dressing table for ladies , not much in present use. They are about 5 feet long, and contain a glass in the centre of the uppermost part, and one at each end of the lower part, which are hinged to a narrow drawer, and rise by a quadrant, by which the glasses are kept in an upright position ; and as these narrow drawers are also hinged to a part behind them reserved in the frame, the glasses may be turned to any horizontal as well as upright position, by means of which, the back part of the head may be seen as well as the front, the advantage of which is a mere trifle in com parison to the expence it occasions. RUSH. This plant grows naturally in most parts of Europe. Botanists say there is but one species of it. Those however which are found in the watery soil of 300 SAR Holland are the beſt for the use of cabinet makers ; with these, after they are well seasoned, they polish and clean off mahogany and other wood, which are used after the work has been well rubbed with glass paper. S SALOON, a lofty spacious sort of hall, vaulted at the top, situated in the centre of noble buildings. The side walls of such elegant and auguſt apartments muſt bear a striking symmetry to each other. The decorations of such rooms arise to the ne plus ultra of enrichment, and every ornament conducted in a most bold and effective taste. In Carleton-house, the town residence of the Prince of Wales, is furnished with one of these, which the contracted nature of this Dictionary will not allow me either to represent or describe, but which I purpose to do in a folio work, for which I have now opened a subscription, and have obtained already the names of several who are subscribers to this Dictionary*. The saloon is considered as a state room, and is much used in the palaces of Italy, from which nation we have derived the idea, though it ought not to be forgotten, that the Egyptian halls and the Grecian atrium, of which we have already touched, bear a considerable semblance to the saloon. The chief use of the saloon is for the reception of foreign ambassadors and other great visitors. SARCOPHAGUS, a Greek word, from one and payw, the former denoting flesh, and the latter to eat-flesh eater ; but which we now shew, according to our designs of 1

• A specimen of the work, and the particular plan of which may be seen at my apartments ; and where I will thankfully receive the

name of any who choose to subscribe to the intended publication. SAR 301 these in plate 68, are in modern times appropriated to the use of wine-drinkers ; such is the fate of many terms in thecourse oftime by the various customs of different ages andcountries. The followingaccount of the sarcophagus is selected from the authors of the British Encyclopedia : • Sarcophagus, or Lapis Assius, in the natural history of the ancients, a stone much used by the Greeks in their sculptures ; is recorded to have always perfectly con sumed the flesh of human bodies buried in it forty days. This property it was much famed for, and all the ancient naturalists mention it. There was another very singular quality also in it, but whether in all, or only in some peculiar pieces of it, is not known ; that is, its turning into stone any thing that was put into vessels made of it. The place from whence the ancients tell us they had this stone, was Assos, a city of Lycia, in the neigh bourhood of which it was dug ; and De Boot informs us, that in that country, and some parts of the east, there are also stones of this kind, which, if tied to the bodies of living persons, would in the same manner consume their flesh. " The sarcophagus, as a piece of furniture, is, in some faint degree, an imitation of the figure of these ancient stone coffins , on which account only the term can with any colour of propriety be applied to such wine cisterns. They are adapted to stand under a sideboard, some of which have covers, and others without, as in plate 68. The lowest design is supported with dolphin legs, and the upper one with lions paws ; a ring at each end is not only suitable but a convenient ornament, by which servants may more safely move them about. The rings and heads should be cast in brass, and lacquered, and also the dolphins and lions paws. On the top of those covered should be a carved ornament, as shewn in the 302 SCR design, which may receive or be without a ring, but perhaps a ring would prove useful to lift the top up by. SAUNDERS, a kind of wood brought from the East Indies, of which , there are three kinds, white, yellow, and red. SAW, a tool of general use among cabinet makers, and of which there are a great variety ; as a hand saw, rip ping saw, pannel saw, tenon saw, sash saw, dovetail saw, bow saw, balluster saw, and bench saws. SCALE. See DRAWING, in Supplement. SCARLET, a beautiful bright red colour. In painting in water colours, minium mixed with vermilion produces a good scarlet. SCENOGRAPHY, in perspective, from Exavn, skene, a scene, and papo, grapho, to write or describe ; is the representation of any object on a plane, perpendicular to the horizon, and to the plane of the picture. See ICH NOGRAPHY and ORTHOGRAPHY. SCIOGRAPHY, the profile or section ofa building, cut in length and breadth to shew the inside. SCOTIA. See MOULDINGS, in Supplement. SCREEN. A piece of furniture used to shelter the face or legs from the fire. Hence the more common name is fire-screen, of which there are a great variety, as tripod fire-screens, horse or safe fire-screens, folding andsliding fire-screens, and table fire-screens - see plate 74. See SCREEN, in Supplement. SCREW, one of the mechanical powers, much used by cabinet makers in gluing pieces of wood together. For this purpose they have various hand screws and caul screws, which they use in veneering, and is one of the most effectual methods in that art. In all screws, when the threads are nearest together, that is, the least in clined to the sides of the cylinder round which they SEC 303 revolve, their power is the greater, but what they thus gain in power, they lose in time, as is the case with every machine. SCROWL. See VOLUTE. SCRUTOIR, an old word for what we now term a secre tary, or writing cabinet. SCULPTURE, from sculptura, to carve, is generally ap plied to the art of cutting stone to represent persons, or pieces of history ; or it imports the method of casting figures of plaster of Paris, or other substances. SECRETARY. This term signifies one who is employed in writing letters for noblemen and princes ; but among cabinet makers it is applied to certain pieces of furniture to write at, as in plate 70 ; which shews the writing drawer open, and the other parts of the design are so obvious as to require no further description. There are also secretaries for ladies, of a small size, usually with a book shelf on the top part. The gentleman's secretary, plate 69, is intended for standing to write at, and therefore the height is adjusted for this purpose, it being 3 feet 7 inches to the upper side ofthe writing flap, and the depth of the secretary drawer is 10inches. The door on the right incloses a cupboard for a pot and slippers, and the left side contains a place for day book, ledger, and journal, for a gentleman's own accounts. SECTION, from sectio, to cut, in drawing, is simply shewing any thing as if cut by a plane parallel to the eye, in which the true profile of every projection will appear. There are a variety of sections in geometry, producing different figures ; as the section of a sphere is a circle, an oblique section of a cylinder is a regular ellipsis , of a cone irregular, of a quadrangular prism, is an oblong of parallelogram, of a pyramid, a trapezium. • 304 SID SHADOW, in optics, is a privation of light, by the in terposition of some opaque body. Of the nature of shadows in perspective, see PERSPECTIVE, in Sup plement. SHAFT, in architecture, is that part of a column which extends between the base and capital, see COLUMN, plate 50 ; and observe, that the shafts of all the five orders are to diminish upwards in curve lines, from one third of their height next the base ; also, that in all the orders, the lower diameter is 60 minutes, and the upper 50. SHAVING TABLE, a piece of furniture fitted up for a gentleman to dress at, in which there is a glass behind, made to rise to any height by means of a brass rack and thumb spring, which catches the holes of the rack, and supports the frame to which the glass is hinged. They contain a bason to wash in, and a cupboard below, a drawer or two below it, and sometimes a shelf to receive a bottle of water. See plate 71 . SIDEBOARD TABLE, as in plates 72 and 73, are those that are used for a dining equipage, on which the silver plate is placed. Plate 72, is a cellaret sideboard with a cupboard at each end, which may be either plain or have drawers. The fronts of the cellarets are hung on a centre, which is connected with a square case within, where the bottles of wine are kept, except those in im mediate use, which are placed in a circular case on the inside of the front, as expressed in the design. The brass pillars on the top support a shelf, with a groove to receive the edges of plates, when it is thought proper to place them in such a manner. The shelf other wise serves to place any small silver ware upon, accord ing to the custom or fancy of a family. Plate 73, exhibits a mirror with lights on each side, SOF 305 fixed to the brass rail. The lions heads are to be carved in mahogany, and the rings may be of brass. The general height of a sideboard is 3 feet, the width 2 feet 9 inches, the length from 5 feet to 10. The width of the cellaret part 16 inches, outside measure, if to hold nine bottles, and 20 inches for twelve ; and the depth from 14 to 15, exclusive of the partition above and below the drawer. In some sideboards there is a plate drawer under the plain one next the top ; this plate drawerforms a small recess between the middle legs, and brings forward with it an arch at each end, planted on the front of it, together with the partition which appears under the drawer above it ; it is usually lined with green. cloth. The most fashionable sideboards at present are those without cellerets, or any kind of drawer, having massy ornamented legs, and moulded frames. SILK, a very soft fine bright thread, the work of an insect called the silk worm. The silk worm is a native of China, where the culture of silk was anciently con fined, but in modern times is extended to most parts of Europe. SIZE. See GILDING and PAINTING. SOFA. Dr. Johnson thinks the term is of eastern ex traction, which, he says, is a splendid seat covered with carpet. Our sofas are, however, never covered with carpet, but with various pattern cottons and silks. The sofa, in plate 75, will look well executed in a mahogany frame and carved, with the pannels above the stuffing reeded in mahogany. The Ionic volutes on the legs are in conformity to the title of the sofa, that being a Grecian order. SOFATABLE. Are those used before a sofa, and are gene rally made between 5 and 6 feet long, and from 22 to 2 feet broad ; the frame is divided into two drawers, as shewn X 306 SPH in plate 76, where is also the design of a sofa, that a stranger may more clearly see the use of such tables. The ladies chiefly occupy them to draw, write, or read upon. For writing and drawing upon in particular, we have given a design of one in plate 77 ; the top of which rises by means of lines connected with the four square standards which support a frame, to which the rising top is hinged, as shewn in the section on the right hand. The tapered pillars which support the whole table are glued up hollow to receive the standards b, c, and the winch at a, turns a perpetual screw, which acts upon the axle g, and winds it round to the right, and receives the line round it. The lines pass over small pullies, denoted by the white circles, and consequently each line has a perpendicular power in raising the desk. With respect to the ſtandards at the opposite end from that which has the winch, the lines are conveyed to them in a square vacuity behind the drawer, which is made narrow for that purpose ; and observe, that the small drawer which is at each end in the front is only sham, as muft appear from the section and the nature of the plan. SOFFIT, in architecture, is the under side either of the corona or architrave. In the rich orders of architecture, the soffits are cut into compartments of roses and pa teras, &c. SPHERE. A solid body contained under one single sur face, and having a point in the middle, called the centre, whence all the lines drawn to the circumference are equal. A line passing through the centre of a sphere is called its axis, and the extreme points of the axis its poles. SPHEROID. Is a solid approaching to the figure of a SQU 307 sphere, but not exactly round, having one of its di ameters larger than the other. It is supposed to be generated by the revolution of the semi-ellipsis about its axis. SPIRAL LINE, is a curve of the circular kind, which in its progress recedes from its centre, as in winding from the vertex down to the base of the cone, and in this it is distinguished from the helix line, or thread of a screw, which does not recede from its centre as it revolves round its cylinder. SPRING. Is represented by a young man of an exact stature, clothed on one side in white, on the other in black; a broad girdle set with stars, holding a ram under his arm, and a garland of several flowers in his left hand ; two wings on his feet, one white and the other black.. Youth, denotes spring or beginning of the year ; just stature, because of the equator, or equal day and night which happens in the spring ; black and white therefore denote day and night. The girdle, the equi noxial line ; the ram, the sun's entrance into the sign of the zodiac at that time, named aries, or the 21st of March ; the wings, the swiftness of time. SQUAB, a kind of seat. See COUCH, and plate 48. SQUARE, is a geometrical figure, having four equal sides at right angles with each other. It also denotes a useful instrument among cabinet makers, by which they make the end of a board square, or at right angles with its sides, or by which they draw a line perpendicular to the side or edge of any thing. These squares may also be made with a joint, to act as a bevel, serving to draw any oblique line . There are also set squares made of quarter mahogany, in the form of a right angle triangle, with which to set 308 STA any thing square. There are also Tsquares, used much in drawing ; such squares ought to be made of hard ftraight-grained wood, especially the blade ; and observe, the thickness of the blade should not be more than one eighth of an inch thick, which should be chamfered off on all sides to one-third of the thickness of the blade; it should then be dovetailed into the stock, observing to haunch the edges of the square about one- eighth on to the stock, which preserves it from splitting. The edges of the square should then be corrected before the remaining part of the stock be glued on. 1 STAIN. Is to give another or retinge the former colour of any subſtance . The art of ſtaining wood was more in use at the time when inlaying was in fashion, which required most of the primitive colours ; at present red and black flains are those in general use. For a good black ftain, put into a glazed earthen vessel a pint of ftrong vinegar, two ounces of fine iron filings, and half a pound of pounded galls, and allow them to infuse for three or four hours on hot cinders ; after this, increase the heat of the fire, and pour into this mixture four ounces of copperas and a small addition of water, having half an ounce of borax and as much indigo dissolved in it, and make the whole boil till a froth rises over it : rub several coats of this upon the wood to be ſtained black, after it has been first washed over with aqua-fortis a little diluted with water. Laftly, when the work is dry polish it with oil and wax. It is usual however, in preparing for ftaining a black, to give two or three coats of logwood chips well boiled in water, which will contribute towards a good black when the aqua fortis is not used. Some do no more than dissolve a file in vinegar by means of stone sulphur, which they rub on the file when STA 309 it is made hot to a pale degree ; after which they bruise gall nuts, and add some rubſtone mud to it, and keep the whole together in a bottle. This composition requires, previous to laying it on, that the wood should be washed with logwood as noted above. A third method is as follows : dissolve some alum in water bya moderate heat, and in this water soak the wood to be stained black, or brush it over with the liquid a few times. Then take a quantity of logwood chips, and boil them in water in an earthen vessel till the water be reduced to half the quantity ; pound or grind a little indigo and add to the liquor, and boiling the whole together, lay it on the wood quite hot, which after it dries, repeat three times, and it will produce a violet colour. Laftly, take verdigrease at discretion , and boil it in its ownvinegar, and with this wash the work over, which will produce a good black. To dye a black -the veneer should be soaked in alum water in a luke-warm state, then let it be put into strong and boiling hot liquor of logwood chips, where it may continue for some days ; after which take gall nuts, madder, sumack, alder bark, and iron filings, and boil them together ; and after the liquor is cool put in some vitriol, and in the liquor soak the veneer till it is dyed through. Take care not to infuse too much vitriol, which would over tender the wood. The safeft method is firft to prove a small portion of veneer, and then proceed to any quantity. It is said, box or pear-tree may be dyed black as follows : fteep the wood in alum water for three or four days, then boil it in common linseed oil with a little Roman vitriol and sulphur ; the longer it is boiled the wood will be the blacker, but will become too hard if the due time be exceeded. This mode, however, can only answer for 310 STA small pieces, such as turned vases, pateras, or small round or oval portrait frames. To ſtain a red-may be performed by quick lime slacked in urine, which the wood is to be covered with whilst it is hot ; but in this liquid it would be a help to add that extracted from Brazil wood, to prevent its being of too dark a red. Or if the wood be soaked in alum water with some tartar in it, about halfthe quantity ofthe alum , and afterwards in Brazil wood stain made strong, in whichthe wood muſt be either soaked for halfa day, or be repeatedly brushed over with the liquid till the ftain is produced. Fordying red-some recommend the wood to be boiled in alum water, then to put them into a tincture of Brazil wood with alum water for two or three weeks. In repairing old furniture, to bring the new to the colour of the old mahogany, use a little soft soap, and let it lay on the part for some time, till the new appear to be nearly the same colour as the old. If the soap do not bring up the new part sufficiently ſtrong, add to it a little quick lime and chamber lye, or the lime of itself will do, when mixed with soap. Stains in stuffs, silks, cotton, and linen, maybe taken out by the following method : take two pounds of spring water, put in it a little pot-ash about the quantity of a walnut, and a lemon cut in small slices ; mix this well together, and let it stand for 24 hours in the sun, then ttrain it through a cloth, and put the clear liquid up for use. As soon as the spot is taken out wash the part with water. To take out spots of grease, pitch , oil , or ink, the following receipts are recommended : For grease-rub the parts with oil of turpentine, and afterwards wash them again in rectified spirits of wine. STA 311 If the oil or grease be in white silk, rub the spots well with aqua-fortis so diluted as not to burn it, afterwards rub them again with the glair of new laid eggs ; hang it to dry, and laftly, wash it with fair water, and press it well. To take out spots of pitch or tar out of cloth - rub hogs' lard well into the spots, and let it remain for 24 hours or more if necessary ; then rub it well with the hands, and wring it ; and laftly, wash it clean with soap and water. To take out spots of ink out of silk -take ftrong white wine vinegar and hot ashes, rub them well upon the spots, and afterwards wash with soap and water. Genoa soap is esteemed the beft for this purpose. The juice of lemons is sometimes used inſtead, or along with the vinegar ; and hot white bread, just taken out of the oven, and applied to both sides, will take out oil or grease from silk. STAND. Amongst cabinet makers is applied to different small pieces of furniture ; as a music stand, bason stand, table stand, or a small pillar and claw table stand, and a tray stand. STATE BED, are those intended for the accommodation of princes and noblemen. Of this kind of bed, we may consider that in plate 13, which is there termed a French bed, yet it must be observed, that something more characteristic of the magnificence of kings and princes is requisite to constitute a ſtate bed, of which 1 published a specimen above. 12 years ago in my quarto work ; the design and description of which I scruple not to recom mend to the reader, though it is now the property of Mr. Bains, Bookseller, Paternofter-row. In my present confined plan I have no room for another design of this " 312 STA kind, but hope to have an opportunity in future in my intended large work. STATUE, a piece of sculpture in full relievo, representing a human figure. Some define it to be in high relievo, and insulate, that is, detached from a back ground, to represent some person distinguished by birth, merit, or great actions, placed as an ornament in a fine building, or exposed in a public place to preserve the memory of his worth. In Greece, one of the highest honours to which a citizen could aspire, was to obtain a ſtatue to per petuate his memory; ftatues are distinguished under four different kinds . The firft, are those less than life. The second, are those equal to life. The third, those that exceeded. And the fourth, exceeded it twice, thrice, and sometimes more, and were called colossuses. The first class of statues were used for great men, kings, and for the pagan deities themselves. The second, or those equal to life, were erected at the public expence to perpetuate the memory of men of learning and great virtue. The third, amongft which are those that sur passed the life once and a half, were for Emperors ; and those of double proportion were for heroes. Statues are not only various as to magnitude and use, but also in quality or denomination. First, an allegorical ſtatue is that which under a human figure or symbol, represents some thing of another kind ; as a part of the earth, a season, age, element, temperament, time, &c. Second, curule ftatutes, are those which are represented in chariots drawn by big or quadriga, that is, by two or four horses, of which kind there were several in the circusses, and those seen with triumphal arches on antique medals. Third, equestrian ftatue, is that which represents some illustrious person on horseback, as that famous one of Marcus Aurelius at Rome, that of King Charles I. at SUP 313 P Charing Cross, &c. Fourth, a Greek ſtatue, denotes a figure that is naked and antique, such were those of their deities, and the Athlete of the Olympic games ; the ſtatues of heroes were particularly called Achillean statues, by reason of the great number of figures of Achilles in most of the cities of Greece. Fifth, hydraulic ſtatue, is any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain or grotto, or that does the office of a jette d'eau, a cock, spout, or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attri bute it holds the same is to be underſtood of any animal serving for the same purpose. Sixth, a pedeſtrian ſtatue, is one standing on foot, as that of King Charles II . in the Royal Exchange. Seventh, Roman ftatues is an appellation given to such as are clothed, and which re ceive various names from their different dresses. Those of emperors with long gowns over their armour were called ftatuæ paludata ; those of captains and cavaliers, with coats of arms, thoracate ; those of soldiers with cuirasses, loricatæ ; those of senators and augurs, tra beatæ ; those of magiftrates with long robes, togatæ ; those of the people with a plain tunica, tunicatæ ; and laftly, those of women with long trains, stolatæ. Encycl. .:Brit. STONE, is a hard, solid mineral body, neither fusible, nor malleable, formed in the body of the earth. SUPPER-CANTERBURY. See plate 26, and the article CANTERBURY. The upper part of the large design is intended to take off occasionally ; for this end, the pillars which support the top are screwed fast up to the top and have strong pins at the bottom, which fall into sockets. The design on the right is for a single gentleman or lady. The circular top receives a tin case, to be japanned, for holding the plates ; and the tray also below muſt have a 314 SYC 1 tin lining to receive knives and forks ; the small drawer inthe stretcher is for spoons. SYCAMORE TREE, one of the species of the maple tree. See MAPLE. Thefollowing articles were omitted inpage 302. SATTIN, a glossy kind of silk stuff, the warp of which is very fine, and stands so as to cover the coarser woof. SATTIN WOOD. This is, amongft cabinet makers, a highly valuable wood, the best of which is of a fine straw colour cast, and has therefore a cool, light, and pleasing effect in furniture, on which account it has been much in requisition among people of fashion for above 20 years past. There are various species of this wood, but I can find no botanical classification for this nor several other foreign woods, in any author that has yet come to my knowledge. The East India sattin wood is of the hardest texture, and of a small rich figure in the grain, and I think no inftance in nature, yet dis covered, does exceed the beauty of the richest sort of it. The West India sattin wood is less hard, more bold in figure, sometimes paler in colour, which is a favourite quality, and often more valuable than the East India wood, because of its breadth and general utility. The East India wood runs narrow, and is used in general only for cross banding. The foxy, or red coloured sattin wood should be avoided ; but sometimes this is not a quality in the wood, but an accident occasioned by being cut at the wrong season, when the sap is rising, or it may be from dampness, or being suddenly exposed to the sun, when it comes from the saw, which draws the sap tothe surface, or other causes inexplicable. When 1 216EC TAF 315 however, the cause is not natural, it may be helped, after the work is finished, by rubbing the surface over with lemon juice and salt, a little aqua-fortis , and oil ofvitriol, mixed cautiously, and first applied to a small piece of the sattin wood veneer ; and it requires this assistance, that the ingredients may be duly proportioned. When the liquid has restored the natural colour by eating out the sap, the surface must be rushed over immediately, and then varnished as quick as possible, that the air may not re-enter, and draw the sap forward again. A fine tint of sattin wood may be imitated by gambouge, bister, and a little lake ; and for shading furniture on the dark side, add more of the bister and lake. T TABBY, a kind of rich silk , which has undergone the operation of tabbying, which is performed by an en graved roller, which preffes it into uneven surfaces, and these reflecting the rays of light differently, makes it appear wavey. , TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, supported variously, and used to place things upon. In cabinet making, there are a great variety of tables, with names appropriate to their use, as Dining, Card, Library, Pier, Sideboard, Sofa, and Writing Tables - which see under these articles. TABLET, a little table. Hence the ornamented tablet, frequently introduced in carved frames, and in the fronts. of table frames. TAFFETY, a fine smooth silken stuff, remarkably glossy. There are taffeties of all colours, some plain, and others 316 TAP striped with gold, silver, &c. -Some are chequered, others flowered. TAMBOUR, in French, signifies a drum. Tambour tables, amongst cabinet-makers, are oftwo sorts, one for a gentle man or lady to write at ; and another for the latter to execute needle work by. The writing tambour tables are almost out of use at present, being both insecure, and very liable to injury. They are called tambour from the cylindrical form of their tops, which are glued up in narrow slips of maho gany, and laid upon canvas, which binds them together, and suffers them, at the same time, to yield to the motion their ends make in the curved groove in which they run, so that the top may be brought round to the front, and pushed at pleasure to the back again, when it is required to be open. Tambour doors are often introduced, in small pieces of work, when no great strength or security is requisite, as in night tables, and pot cupboards. The tambour tables used by the ladies, are on pillar and claws ; and at the top of the stand or pillar is a wooden ball inclosed in a concave sphere, to which is fixed a circular rim of wainscot, about a quarter of an inch thick and 2 broad. To this rim the ground forthe needle-work is fixed by lacing it over ; and as the whole frame moves by the ball fixed as above, the work may be turned to any position as the worker may require. TANGENT. -See DRAWING, in Supplement. TAPER, or THERM. To taper table or chair legs, is to diminish their thickness towards the ground. Tapered legs look handsome in work, but to me they appear quite unnatural, ' to take all the tapering from the inside, as is the practice of some workmen. This mode offends against every instance of nature, and the chaste taste of the ancients. A man's leg tapers nearly alike on all TEN 317 sides. The sprightly rush and willow, by the water brooks, rise with regular tapering from their base ; and those most beautiful models of antiquity, the five orders, diminish in their shaft, in regular circular gradation to wards their cap. TAPESTRY, a kind of cloth made of wool and silk, adorned with figures of different animals, and formerly used for lining walls of rooms. TARRASS, a sort of plaster, or strong mortar, chiefly used in lining basons of water, cisterns, walls, and reservoirs. TASSEL, a kind of pendant ornament used in upholstery work. The drawing lines of festoon curtains have tas sels at their ends. And opposite to this side, there should be a false line and a tassel to it, to match the right side ofthe window. Balance tassels, are those which are used in fire. screens to keep the mount up. The weight of the screen mount must be ascertained , and then a lead tassel is formed of equal weight, with a hole through the centre to take the line, which then is covered and worked as any other tassel. TEMPERENCE, in painting, is represented by a gentle woman holding a bridle in one hand, and the stay of a clock in the other, and an elephant by her. The bridle denotes her dominion over the passions and appetites. The elephant her strict rule in the measure of her diet, as this animal, being accustomed to eat a certain quantity, will not take any more. TENT, from tentorium to stretch out, is a pavilion or portable house. Tents are made of Russia duck and tick, for officers and soldiers to lie under when in the field. The size of the officer's tent is not fixed ; some regi ments have them of one size and some of another. A captain's tent and marquee is generally 10 feet broad, 318 ΤΕΝ 14 feet deep, and 8 feet high. The subalterns' are one foot less ; the major's and lieutenant colonel's a foot larger. The subalterns of foot lie two in a tent, and those of horse but one. The tents of private men are 6 feet square and 5 feet high, and hold five soldiers each. The tents of horse are 7 feet broad and 9 fect deep ; they likewise hold five men and their accoutre ments. In plate 79, is a design for a field officer's tent and marquee, which has been executed for Sir Watkin WilliamWynn, by Mr. Marshal, of Gerrard-street, Soho ; and was highly approved of by that gentleman and his officers. The marquee, or outside, is of Russia duck, and the inside, or tent, is of tick, standing within the marquee, about 8 or 9 inches or more ; so that the tent, bythis means, breaks offthe water that may press through the duck in heavy rains. The inside of the tent is lined with cotton, and hung in draperies. The plan of the tent is semi-circular at each end ; and where the circle commences, a curtain is hung extending the whole width of the tent, parting in the middle for the easy admission of company to dine. Within the circular ends the ser vants wait, and are thus parted from the company. The circular room at the end ofthe tent, is the sleeping apart ment, which has a passage to it leading streight from the body of the tent, in length about 12 feet, and 8 feet wide, having a curtain on each side, behind which they put trunks and other articles out of the way. The main roof is supported by two upright posts driven into the ground, between which there is a pole extended for the ridge of the roof. The circular sleeping room has only one post in the centre, by which its roof is sup ported. The porch, or first entrance, has a small post at each angle, and a slight frame made to join to the roof of the marquee. The painted valence on the ridge ofthe roof is of convass, and the colours are to corre

THR 319 spond with the standard of the regiment. There is also a sort of valence that goes all round the cove of the roof on the side wall, hanging about 9 or 10 inches deep. From each seam in the Russia duck is a line stretched out, by a wooden runner, with two holes, through one of which the cord is knotted, and the other gathers the cord as it is drawn tight round the pin, as shewn at a. From each extremity of the side- walls is what is called a weather line crossing each other, and drawn round a pin as the other lines, as may be observed from the drawing. These lines are the only means for keeping out the side-walls to their place, and to guard them against winds, together with the loops and pins, which are at the bottom of walls, as the plate shews. For the fur niture of a tent, see the article CAMP. The widths and length of the Russia duck for the roof, may easily be found, by laying down a semi-plan on paper of a large scale, and dividing the plan into seams, to suit the cloth ; and then drawing a perpendicular line from the centre of the circular end, to give the height of the roof; and a line being drawn from any of those divisions, gives the length of the seams, and the width is taken from the plan bythe compasses, and the opening measured on the scale, which gives the width. TERMINI, in architecture, denotes a kind of ſtatues or columns, adorned at the top with the figure of a man's, woman's, or satyr's head, as a capital ; the lower part ending in a kind of sheath or scabbard. TERRACE, a walk or bank of earth, raised in a garden or court to a due elevation for a prospect. The name is also given to the roofs of houses that are flat, where we may walk. THRONE. A royal seat, or chair of ftate enriched with architecture and ornaments of sculpture, raised on one or more ſteps, and covered with a canopy. 320 TRA TILIA, the lime tree. Botanists reckon four species of this tree. The flowers have a fragrant smell, and prove grateful to bees. This wood is light, smooth, and of a spongy texture . It contains a gummy juice, which being repeatedly boiled and clarified, produces a subſtance like sugar. It is thought to be a native of Britain, though some think that it was imported into England in the year 1652. This wood is much in use amongcarvers and laft makers. TIME. In painting, is represented by an old man, bald behind ; he is winged, to denote the swiftness of time ; in one hand is a scythe, and in the other an hour glass ; the former denoting time will destroy every thing, the latter, that time under providential direction, muſt run out its appointed period. TORUS. See MOULDINGS, in Supplement. TRAMMEL. A mathematical instrument with which to describe ovals. TRANSVERSE, going across from the right to the left. The longest diameter of an ellipsis is called the transverse, and the shortest the conjugate diameter. TRAVERSE, amongst cabinet makers, is to plane across the grain ofthe wood. TRAY, from the Saxon language, to carry, anciently a kind of trough hollowed out of a piece of wood, but is now applied in cabinet making, to boards with rims round them, on which to place glasses, plates, and a tea equi page. Hence there are tea trays of various shapes and sizes. Dinner trays, butler's trays, knife trays, and comb trays. The dinner tray is for taking up dishes and plates to the dining table ; their sides are 3 inches deep all round, with handle holes in each side, which may be made of good Honduras, but the bottoms should be of Spanish, for the reason assigned under the article BUT TRE 321 LER'S TRAY, which see. The length of the largest dinner trays are 32 inches, and width 2 feet ; full-sized tea trays are nearly the same. Mahogany knife trays of the best kind have two partitions, with a brass handle which clasps over the edges of two partitions, and screws to the sides, which are 3 or 3 inches deep ; the inside length 14 inches, and the width from 10 to 12 inches ; observe, the sides of these knife trays are square up, not sloped as formerly. Comb trays are 6 inches by 8 or 9inches long, with bevelled sides and mitred corners, generally inserted amongst the utensils of ladies dressing tables . They are mitered upon a block of wood and keyed at the corners. TREE, a large vegetable, rising with one woody stem to a considerable height. The magnitude of some trees is truly surprising, and in some instances next to incredible. The largest tree in Europe, is a chesnut on mount Etna, said to be 160 feet round, but quite hollow within. And there have been seen by travellers, both oaks and elms 20 feet in circumference. Some yews have been found in Britain 60 feet round. Palms, in Jamaica, at tain the height of 200 feet ; and some of the pines in Norfolk Island are 280 feet high. The yearly growth of oaks and elms, in taking the girth of them, amounts to about 1 inch and a half, or sometimes not more than one, which gives one- sixth part of it in thickness of the wood added to the tree, or something under three-eighths in diameter. This addition, when the tree is cut down, and sawn directly across, shews itself by a ring which it has for every year's growth, which become, however, Jess visible towards the centre. The bulk of trees depends both on the soil and heat of. the climate where it grows. At the distance from the poles where vegetation commences, there are no trees, but only pining and slender shrubs ; but as the climate Y 322 TRI advances towards the equator, the trees increase in size. This is observable in mahogany, which in general is of the largeſt diameter, every species of which grows in the hottest countries. The largest I ever saw was in Lon don about twenty years since, which was upwards of 8 feet over one way ; but considering that it was squared, the circle that would inscribe such a square, would be38 feet in circumference ; and it is most probable, that there are much greater standing in their native soil, as immoveable. The season for felling trees has been much disputed, but the most proper is settled to be from the time the leaves begin to fall off, till they begin to bud again in the spring. In this season, the sap has settled down into the roots of the tree ; therefore the trunk at this time will be freest from that sap which tends to rot the timber. An act ofparliament, however, requires oak timber to be felled in the spring, for the sake of the tanning, alder, and dying barks, which come freely off at the time when the sap begins to rise . And, according to Buffon and some others, this is no prejudice, but a real benefit to the wood of the tree, provided it remain unfelled for two or three years, at the end of which period the sap becomes hardened by the heat of the sun, and will be as durable as the most solid part of the wood, which is it self also improved by this method. See the article BARK. TRELLISE, slips of wood crossing each other at right angles, or in an oblique direction. TRIDENT, an attribute of Neptune, being a kind of sceptre in form of a spear or fork, with three teeth ; whence the word. TRIGLYPHS, an ornament in the Doric freeze. See plate 11 , No. 6 ; also plate 31 , and the description of the Doric order. TUL 323 TRIO-TABLE, a sort of small work table, made in three parts, to shut up into each other, and which may be used either jointly or separately. See plate 78. TRIPOD. In antiquity, a famed sacred seat or stool, sup ported by three feet, on which the priests and sybils sat to render, cr deliver their oracles. Literally, it denotes any thing with three feet, from rodios, tripodion, a compound. Tripod stands have been variously introduced for or nament. They have been much in use for the support of lights, and continue to be so, though there are others preferred as more fashionable. See plate 60. There are also tripod fire-screens, and tripod work tables. See SCREEN. TRIPOLI, a kind of soft stone, found in Tripoli, in Bar bary, from whence it was brought to us. Of this stone some is now found in England, of a brownish or yellow colour. It is much used in polishing, particularly in varnishing, which see. TROPHY, amongst the ancients, was a monument of victory. Such monuments were adorned with various warlike instruments. Hence in the temples, dedicated to such pagan idols as preside over war, the friezes of their entablatures were decorated with weapons of war. In modern ornaments, several species of trophies are intro duced, as music trophies, love trophies, &c. TRUNK, from truncus, Latin, a chest or box usually covered with leather. In a botanical sense, it is the stem or body of a tree. And from the cylindrical form of the body of a tree, probably the term trunk, applied to a chest, was derived, as they are usually made with circular tops, and at other times an entire cylinder. TULIP WOOD. A finely variegated, hard, East India wood, in great repute amongst cabinet-makers, for cross banding. The stripes of it are variegated like a tulip of 324 VAR a fine blush red, and fairish white : hence its name tulip wood. The trees of tulip wood seldom run more than 5 inches wide, and 4 feet long ; in point of weight, it is hardly inferior to any. The beauty of this wood soon decays, when exposed to the sun; to prevent which, all work, in which it is used, ought to be varnished. TURNING. The art of forming hard bodies, as wood, ivory, stone, and iron, into a round or oval shape, by means of a machine called a lathe. It appears that this art, in comparison with the practice of turning amongst the ancients, is in no state of improvement, but rather impaired or fallen back ; for there are vases to be seen of their work, with figures, in half relief upon them, which was the work of the lathe. TURMERIC ROOT, used by dyers to give a yellow colour. TURPENTINE, a transparent gum or rosin, which flows, either naturally or by incision, from several lofty resin ous trees, as larch, pines, fir, &c . TUSCAN, the name of one of the five orders in architec ture . See plate 30, and under COLUMN. V VANISH, in perspective, generally alludes to some point or line, in which a vanishing point is situated. An object is said to vanish in proportion as it recedes from the plain of the picture, or base line ; and having ap proached the vanishing point or line, it becomes invisi ble. See PERSPECTIVE, in Supplement. VARNISH, a clear limpid fluid, capable of hardening without losing its transparency. VAR 325 A varnish for small boxes, &c. Dissolve 2 ounces of gum mastich, and 8 ounces of gum sandarach, in a quart of highly rectified spirits of wine, then add 4 ounces of Venice turpentine. Another varnish, for larger work: -Dissolve, in a quart of spirits of wine, 8 ounces of gum sandarach, 2 ounces of seed lack , and 4 ounces of rosin ; then add 6 ounces of Venice turpentine. If it be desired to have the varnish red to help the colour of mahogany, where there are no white wood lines or delicate cross bands, then more of the seed lack should be used . And take 'dragon's blood and alkanet root, pour upon them spirits of wine, till the colours are extracted from these sub stances. Strain the liquid through a cloth ; and when the sandarach and seed lack are dissolved, by continual shaking, mix the staining liquid with it. Pure white spirit varnish, for covering delicate sur faces, ought to be carefully managed, as every kind of foulness and dirt, diminishes its lustre and transparency. ― The best gum sandarach should be procured, and the fairest coloured of it should be selected from the rest ; and whatever quantity of sandarach is put into a bottle, or other vessel for making it, let the proof rectified spirits of wine be poured into it, till it rise somewhat more above the sandarach, than the height which the gum rises in the boule ; then shake the whole together, till the gum is dissolved . Let then about 3 ounces of white rosin, and as much Venice turpentine be added to it , and shake the whole together, and let it stand in the bottle it was made in for use. And observe, not to shake the bottle before you begin to use it , but pour off the top part of it for present use, and the rest will clarify as it stands. Some recommend 凿 the mixture to be ef fected by heat, as a water bath or sand- heat, which may be done, by taking an caithen jar and putting in the 326 VAR substances as above, and three-fourths of the spirits of wine, covering the vessel close up, and set it into hot water, till the whole be dissolved. Copal varnish is composed of lintseed oil and gum copal, and is much used in painting, and for varnishing pictures. Take 16 ounces of copal, and let it be dis solved over a slow fire . Then take 8 ounces of bleached lintseed oil, and pour upon it, that they may incorpo rate by stirring the whole round with a wooden spatula. Then taking it off the fire, add to it 16 ounces of the best spirits of turpentine, not till it is pretty well cooled, otherwise the spirits would take fire from the oil, and it might prove of dangerous consequence . If, on being perfectly cool, the composition should be too thick, it may easily be diluted with the spirits to any degree re quisite, as it is used ; and it is proper to take notice, that if mahogany work be coated with this varnish, it should be used very thin, or it will be tedious to get it sufficiently dry. But for this purpose, a portion of black rosin may be melted into it, and then it will dry rapidly, without being reduced too much with the spirits . MASTIC VARNISH. Mastic or mastich, is a tran sparent resin from the lantise-tree. Into one quart of spirits of turpentine, put in 12 ounces of genuine mas tich in tears, and very cautiously heating them till they are thoroughly incorporated. The safest way will be to put the ingredients into a glazed earthen vessel, and place it in boiling water. In case of fire, a wet cloth should be at hand, by which to smother the flame. This varnish, with the addition of copal varnish to it, will answer very well for pictures. TURPENTINE VARNISH may be made as follows : Take a pound of common turpentine, a quarter of a pound of black rosin, and a small quantity of drying oil, and dissolve them over a gentle fire. Lastly, when VAR 327 the mixture is inclining to cool, let fall a drop of the spirits of turpentine, and it will be seen whether it be inclinable to take fire ; if not, pour in gently a quart of it, which, ifthe vessel be placed into hot boiling water, may be properly incorporated without danger. A BLACK VARNISH. Take 3 ounces of asphaltum, 2 ounces of black rosin, 12 ounces of amber, and melt them together ; after which take 6 ounces of drying oil, and gently heat the whole again. Lastly, put into this mixture 12 ounces of spirits of turpentine, as before described. This, and every other varnish contained in the preceding directions, should be strained through cloths, und bottled close up for use. In varnishing any work for polishing, the surface should be well rushed, and perfectly true. Then give to the top one coat of copal varnish, which will pre serve the spirit varnish more effectually from cracking. Then repeat three lays of white hard spirit varnish, and rush off the ground, when it is sufficiently dry. After this four more coats should be added, not oftener than once a day; for if they are repeated in haste, before each lay of varnish dry, it will prove a tedious time before it will harden sufficiently to polish. When a sufficient body of varnish is thus prepared for polishing, take pounded pumice ftone and water, with a rag, and rub the strakes of varnish level, then wash it off, and let the work ftand a day or two to harden again ; for as the pumice ftone worked down, so it must in reason come to that part of the varnish less hardened, and therefore must require a day at least to dry. Take then tripoli, and work with it in the same manner as before : dry the work, and let it stand another day. Lastly, take rotten stone and water, and clear off with oil and flour. Some cabinet-work may be done in a more expeditious way, by only giving three or four coats of varnish, and then 328 VER rushing it down without polishing, give a fine thin coat of clear varnish, and it is finished. VASE, a term frequently usedfor ancient vessels dugfrom un derground, or otherwise found and preserved in the cabinets of the curious. In architecture, the appellation vase is also given to those ornaments placed on cornices, pe deftals, &c. representing the vessels of the ancients, particularly those used in sacrificing, as incense pots, flower pots , &c. VAULT, an arched roof. VENEERING. Amongst cabinet makers, is the art of laying down and gluing very thin cut wood, of a fine quality and valuable, upon common wood. See CAUL. When they veneer with the hammer, they temper it with glue size, and warm it at the fire ; and likewise they air the ground, and laying the veneer on it, they work the hammer both ways till no more glue will come out. Sometimes the object of veneering is cheapness, and sometimes appearance. In most cases, however, the ground, glue, and extra time are equivalent to the ex pence of solid wood, except it be to save very rich solid boards. VERDIGRISE, is a corrosion of copper, much used as a green paint. In grinding it, small pieces of copper will frequently be found in it, to clear it of which it is some times diftilled, which improves it much, but adds to the price. To make a fine green it should be well ground upon a hard ftone, with a little white lead and drying oil, and when it is free from every kind of grit, which may be easily proved by passing it between the finger and thumb, then add a little king's yellow or more white, as the shade may be required ; and observe, that this green never comes up to its perfect brightness till turpentine varnish be mixed with it, a little of which may be used at the time of grinding, and the reſt put in immediately VIR 329 before laying it on ; and if the verdigrise be ground in a strong body, it will bear and be improved by a good quantity of the varnish. This colour naturally dries quick, and therefore requires nothing of a siccative quality to help it. If it be fine work that will allow for the expence, the laſt coat of the work may be inade moſt brilliant by using only the distilled verdigrise with a proper temperature of the other ingredients juft mentioned, and a small portion of copal varnish in addition . And, be particularly careful to grind enough at one time to com pleat the work, for if there be any more grinding, the shade will vary, and the work may thereby be spoiled. VERDETER, is also a preparation of copper, used some times for a blue, as it inclines more to that shade than verdigrise. In general it is used for a green, being some what cheaper than the preceding colour ; and if good king's yellow, or patent yellow, be used with it, it will make a handsome green when treated as directed in the foregoing article. VERMILION, a very bright and beautiful red colour, composed of quick- silver and sulphur, known by the name of minium among the ancients ; but that which goes bythis name amongſt us is only a preparation of lead. Vermilion of itself is too glaring a colour for almoſt every article of painting, but by inserting a small quantum of Prussian blue and lake, it is brought to an agreeable crimson red, like lake itself, for which it may be used in cheap japanning, when the price will not admit of real lake. VESTIBLE, a kind of entrance into a large building, or an open place before a hall. VIRTUE, in painting, is represented by a comely virgin, having wings behind, a spear in her right hand, and in her left a crown of laurel, and a sun in her bosom. Her youth denotes, that virtue cannot decay, but per 830 URN 1 petually raise the mind to that state where it will be beſt repaid, which is expressed by the wings ; the laurel sig nifies that she is ever proof againſt vice, and the sun that virtue is cherished by the natural dictates of conscience, the spear her dominion and rule over vicious habits. VISION, the faculty of sight. VISUAL LINES, in perspective, represent the rays of light issuing from every point or angle of an illumined object to the pupil of the eye of the spectator, a section of which is the true representation of the object on the plane of the picture. Hence all lines drawn to the point of sight are termed visual, and are considered perpen dicular to the picture. VITRIOL, a compound salt, formed bythe union of iron , copper, or zink, with the sulphuric acid. It is of three colours, white, blue, and green, according to the metal. From this definition , the use of vitriol in dying any kind of black is evident. VOLUTE, in architecture, a kind of spiral scroll used in the Ionic capital, and that of the Composite. See DRAWING, in Supplement. U yet ULTRAMARINE is the finest and most valuable blue discovered ; the price of which hinders it from being much used. It is the moft brilliant and durable blue, and is used by the first landscape painters in their laft touches in ſkies. UMBER, a colour,of brown earth, of which there is both raw and burnt. URN, a kind of vase of a roundish form, with a large swell in the middle, used now chiefly as ornaments, but anciently WIL 331 they were employed to preserve the ashes of the dead after being burnt ; and were placed sometimes under the tombstone on which the epitaph was cut. Urns were also used at their sacrifices, in which to put liquids. See VASE. W WAINSCOT. The wooden work which lines the walls of a room as high up as the surbase. WALNUT TREE. Of this tree there are three species. The English walnut, and the white and black Virginia. Hickery is reckoned to class with the white Virginia walnut. The black Virginia was much in use for cabinet workabout forty or fiftyyears since in England, but is now quite laid aside since the introduction of mahogany. The common English walnut tree is much paler than the Virginia, and cannot be used but for the moſt common purposes. WAX. See CEMENT. } Twomechanical powers. See MECHANIC. WHITE. According to the modern doctrine of colours, is a composition of all the primitive ones. Sir Isaac Newton demonftrates that those bodies only appear white which reflect all the kinds of coloured rays alike. Hence, white hats have been preferred by philosophic gentlemen in hot weather; because, contrary to the black hats, they reflect or repel the heat, whilft the black ab sorbs it. The white paints are white flake and white lead. See PAINTING. WEDGE. WHEEL. WICKET, a little door within a gate. WILLOW TREE. Botanists reckon twenty-seven dif ⚫ferent sorts of it, but most of these never come to trees. 332 WIR WINDOW, in architecture, is an aperture for light in any building. The word window is from the Welch uynt dor, signifying, the passage for the wind or air, as the door is the passage for the people. " Before the use of glass became general, which was not till towards the end of the 12th century, the windows in Britain scem generally to have been composed of paper, properly prepared with oil, this forms no contemptible defence against the intrusions of the weather. But some of the principal buildings, we may reasonably suppose, to have been furnished with windows superior to this kind. They could, however, be furnished merely with lattices of wood or sheets of linen , as those two remained the only kind of windows in our cathedrals nearly to the 8th century ; and lattices continued in some of the meaner towns in Lancashire to the 18th century, and in many diftricts of Wales, and adjoining parts of England, are in use even to the present moment. " Brit. Encycloped. After such a view of the hiftory of windows, we may well be surprised at their present state of elegance ; not only adorned with glass, sun blinds, &c. but with the richest silks in feftoon and French draperies, crowned with gold and richly painted cornices, a specimen of which see in plates 80 and 81. Of the nature of the window rods, see Rods, and how the lines draw see in Supplement CURTAIN. I shall therefore only observe at present, that the rings held in the lion's mouths should be made larger than in general to admit the drapery ; and if they be cast in brass and gilded, they may hook into the mouths of the lions, and may be taken off at pleasure, WIRE DOORS, are much introduced at present in cabi net work, and with very good effect . When wire worked doors are introduced, they have generally green, white, or pink silk fluted behind it. In any commode WOO 333 or cabinets which have a part of their ornaments gilded, wire suits well with it. WOOD. Under the term tree, we have made some re marks on the growth and nature of wood, which may be further confirmed under the following extract : "Wood is composed of a number of concentric circles or zones, one of which is formed every year , con sequently their number corresponds to the age of the tree. These zones vary in thickness according to the degree of vegetation that took place in the year of their growth or formation. They are also of different degrees of thickness in different parts ; that part ofthe tree which is moft exposed to the sun, and beft sheltered, growing fastest. Hence, in this country, that part of the zone which looked toward the south while the tree was grow ing, is generally the thickest. The innermoft circle or zone is the one which was first formed, the outermost was formed the year before the tree was cut down. The zones are at first very soft and tender, and harden by degrees as the tree becomes older : this is the reason that the middle of a tree is so often much better wood than the outside of it. The proper ligneous part ofthe wood con sists of longitudinal fibres -in fasciculi ; i . e. in parcels or bundles : and possessed of considerable hardness. It is this longitudinal direction of the fibres that renders it so much easier to cleave wood lengthwise than across the tree, or in any other direction. " Brit Encycl. Under the article BOTANY BAY WOOD, I con ditionally promised to give a compleat catalogue of all the woods, but as I have been abundantly particular in obtaining them under every article, and having had no further information on the subject of wood, it wou be needless to insert a catalogue here, especially as I find myself straightened for room. 334 ZOC WRITING TABLE. The same as library table. See SOFA WRITING TABLE of a new invention. Y YELLOW, one of the original colours of light. The vellows used by painters are Dutch pink, English pink, King's yellow, patent yellow, masticot, Naples yellow, orpiment, Terra de Sienna, turpeth mineral, and yellow ochre. YEW TREE. This wood is reddish , durable, full of veins, flexible, and hard. It produces berries which are red, mucilaginous, and have a sweet taste. It is a common opinion that the leaves are poisonous to cattle, but as birds are known to eat of the berries without harm, it seems disputable. Yew tree is found in a wild state inthe Highlands of Scotland. There are only two species of it, one of which is considered as a native of England, and most countries in Europe, and North America. The yew grows to an enormous size ; in some instances, as well as the chesnut, one having been mea sured in a church-yard whose circumference was 56 feet. Mr.Wheeler says, yew is easily propagated by sowing the berries in autumn as soon as they are ripe, upon a shady bed of fresh undunged soil, covering them over about half an inch thick with the same earth. Ꮓ ZEBRA WOOD. A scarce and valuable wood when of a good quality. It is streaked with brown and white as the animal is, from whence it had the name. It is a beautiful wood for cross-banding, but at present is ex tremely scarce. ZOCLE, a low square member, serving to support a co lumn, or other parts of a building, instead of a pedestal, base, or plinth. Additions and Corrections in A. AFRICA, one of the quarters of the globe, is represented in painting by a blackamoor woman, an elephant's head for a crest, a necklace of coral, and pendants of the same ; at her ear is a scorpion . In her right hand is a cornucopia with ears of corn ; on her left, a fierce lion by her on one side, and a viper and serpent on the other. She is represented almoft naked to indicate the climate, and that Africa is very destitute of materials for clothing. The elephant is a native of Africa, which also abounds with vipers and serpents. ALLIGÁZANT, a kind of black rose wood. APOPHYGE, page 9, for as read at the base. ARCH, page 12, for 170 degrees read 180°. ARCHITRAVE, page 14, for plate 8 read 9. ATTIC PILASTER, page 24. The proportions of it there stated may be more easily understood thus : -The whole height of it to be divided into nine equal parts, one of which is for the height of the cornice, and divide one of those ninths into ten parts, and give twelve and a half of these for the height of the plinth, two for the torus, and half to the fillet of the base ; and observe, that the width of this pilaster is the same,as the order on which it is placed ; but when it is unconnected with any, it may be twelve and a half in diameter, or equal to the height of the plinth, and its projection from the wall one-fourth of the same. B BED-STEPS, are such as are placed by a bed side for the convenience of getting more easily into full and high made beds. They generally consist of three steps, rising about 22 inches or 2 feet high, 2 feet 6 long, and 18 inches wide, or less when without a night convenience. 336 CLO Thetop is commonly hinged, and it being inclosed, serves for a pot cupboard. BED-CHAIR, for sick persons. It is made capable of being raised to any angle at the back, by which to support the sickly more or less upright. The backs of this kind of chair turns by a pin or centre on each side to a circular frame, made of beach, which has notches in it to receive the legs of a horse, which raises the back. The height of the back is 26 inches, its width 22 at top, and 20 at bottom . There are side wings at top as a fence to the head, projecting out about 5 inches, and two stump elbows . BED TABLE, is also for a sick person, and has no more than a plain piece of half-inch mahogany for the top, fixed to a slight frame with four legs, about 4 or 5 inches long. The top has a narrow rim round it, and runs about 16 inches long, and 12 or 13 inches wide, с CAMP, page 126, instead of plate 78 read plate 79. Tent. CASE, or Cover, for chairs, &c. to keep them clean, made ofany inferior stuff. Cases or covers for cushions of sofas and chairs, made to slip over and tie with tape. Covers for pier tables, made of stamped leather and glazed, lined with flannel to save the varnish of such table tops . Lately they have introduced a new kind of painted canvas, varnished, and very elastic in its nature, and will probably answer better than leather. CHAISE-LONG, from the French , signifying a long chair, couch, or squab. The chaise-long has a stuffed back and arm on each side, with a bolster, and its use pretty much the same as the Grecian squabs or couches-plates 48 and 49. CLOCK CASE, a tall piece of furniture, adapted to a pen dulum clock, and is always proportioned from the figure LIB 337 and fize of the dial , together with the length and motion of the pendulum. But as thefe pieces are almoft obfolete in London, and having more neceffary plates to infert, I have given no defign of any; but intend to do it in my large work, to ſerve my country friends . D DUCHESS, a kind of bed, compofed of three parts, or a chair at each end and a ftool between them. They are only intended for a fingle lady, and are therefore not more than about 30 inches wide. The chair ends, when apart, have the appearance of large arm or fau teuil chairs, and the middle part may be uſed as a ſtool -see plate 17. And it fhould be obſerved, that the pillars are made fhort, that they may be either incloſed within the ftool chairs, for which reafon the tefter is alfo made to fold. F FAUTEUIL, from the French, fignifies a large chair— See No. 2. plate 8. FOUR-POST BED-page 213, refers to plate 17 inſtead of 14. FRENCH BED- in page 213, refers to plate 18 inſtead of 13. L LIBRARY-STEPS, are fuch as are placed in a library, for the uſe of raiſing a perfon fo as to reach at any book. Sometimes they are made to appear like a ftool, and at others as a Pembroke table, or to rife out of a library table. The defign in plate 56, when incloſed, is to appear as a tool with a ftuffed feat ; and to any work man, the mechanifm of it will appear clear, fo that my deſcription need only be ſhort. The length is 2 feet, width 18 inches, heigth 17, including ftuffed feat ; the firft ftep flides out of the Ζ 338 PAC ftretching rail, and is 8 inches from the ground. The frame is 7 inches deep, and receives the upper fteps, hinged at A, fo as to fall clofe to the frame of the feat, that both may go down together. The hand rail at b turns up by a centre, and has a ſpring under it to keep it upright, which muſt be relieved when the whole is incloſed. Loo TABLE-plate 57 , by miſtake of the engraver termed Ioo Table. This table was omitted in its proper place, which fhould have been the laft term in L. In this deſign the intention of the cupboard is evident, as alſo are ſome other advantages, which however I fhall point out, which partly induced me to give this defign. First . In making thefe very large loo tables, it is often troubleſome to find dry mahogany 6 inches fquare, which fuch a fized table requires ; and even the claws require 3 inch plank, of which, owing to their great lenth and curviture, they make a great confumption. Second. The blocks alfo work up a confiderable quantity of wood, and are liable to warp and give way, which inconveniences are done away by this method, as well as the advantage of having the cupboard, that may be made convenient for feveral purpoſes. The pins on which the top turns, may be made of iron, to work in a focket of brafs, let into the hanging ftile, which then would never give way ; and being oiled, would never fcreech ; nor are the pins in danger of being ſtrained, as the top is fecured from coming too far forward by the moulding below, which is per pendicular to the top of the pedeſtal . P PACKING- age 280, line 16, inftead of when the glaſs is into endanger-read-by which the glass will be in danger of Ireakin . 4 SCR 339 1.M K4% PIER TABLE-plate 63, by mistake of the engraver, is termed Pire Table. S SCROLL-in page 303, is printed by miſtake ſcrowl, and in another place ferole. SUPPLEMENT. IN the courſe of proceeding with the dictionary, it occurred to my mind, that Geometry, Perſpective, and Painting, would be moft conveniently placed together at the end of the work, under the idea of giving a connected and more general treatiſe on theſe uſeful ſub jects. From this view it was, that I fo frequently have referred the reader to the fupplement, for a more full view of the meaning of fome terms in theſe branches of the arts. And as geometry is the foundation of every branch of drawing, we fhall fay as much upon the fubject, and no more, than what is neceſſary for a draftſman and mechanic to underſtand. And I hope, that my friends and fubfcribers to the work, will readily perceive by this plan, I throw my felf into confiderable expence in the plates of lines con tained in the fupplement, which might have been brought into the body ofthe work, and fo reduced the number of the cabinet defigns . I therefore truft, that fhould the fupplement occafion the addition of one number to the original quantity, it will be candidly excuſed by the fubfcribers, yet it is my defire to avoid it if poffible. 340 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Section 1. We have already defined this term, and given a fhort hint of the origin of Geometry, under the article in the dictionary, and therefore fhall proceed immediately to fome uſeful problems. PROBLEM I. plate 1. fig. 1. To find the centre of any given right line, through which to draw a line at right angles to it, let a, b, be the given line; extend the compaffes from a to c, more than half a, b, and interfect an arch from each point a, b, and through their interfection, d, e, draw a line which will pafs through the centre of the faid points, and will be perpendicular to the given line a, b, as required. PROBLEM II. fig. 2. To erect a perpendicular at the end of any given line, as f, g, take any opening of the compafs, and fixing one foot in g, defcribe the arch 1 , 2, 3 ; then with the fame opening, interſect the arch at 2 , and from 2 and 3 defcribe two arches, meeting at 4, which point will be perpendicular to g. Again, if we confider f, g, as the fide of a geometrical ſquare, and would complete it, on g, defcribe f, 4, and fromf, i, 5; and on 4 draw i, 6, and the point i, will be perpendicular to f, con fequently the fides ƒ, 8, 8, 4—4, i, and i, f, will be equal, and their angles 90°. PROBLEM III. fig. 3. Suppofe it required to find any number of divifions on the line 1 , 2, open the compaffes to any convenient extent, and on the indefinite line 3, 4, lay on the pro GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 341 pofed number of divifions ; then extend the compaffes from 3 to 4, and with this opening interfect two arches at a; from each divifion draw lines to a. Laftly, make a 2, a 1 , equal to the given line, by drawing the arch 1, 2, through which draw the right line, and it will be divided as required. And fhould it be neceffary to find the fame number of divifions as flutes in a pilafter, on a line confiderably longer than 1 , 2, or 3, 4, produce the lines a, 2, 4, 6 to any length propofed, and draw through 6, 5, a line parallel to 3, 4, and it is evident that it will be correctly divided. Thus the workman may make a board or drawing for flutes and fillets, to fuit the dimen fions of any pilafter, however ſmall or large, and may accurately obtain them to anfwer the circumference of any fized pillar ; and it may be obſerved, that any number of lines, however variable in length, may at once be correctly divided by this method. PROBLEM IV. fig. 4, 5 and 8. To divide one line in due proportion to another, by means of any triangle-If the triangle c, b, be bifected in 2 on the baſe, and confequently, c, b, double of c, 2, and if through 2 be drawn a line parallel to d, b, meet ing c, d, in 2-through 2 draw 2, 2 , parallel to d, b, and d, b, will alſo be double of 2 b, d, c, of d 2. Hence, if d, b, be divided again at 3 and 1 , and lines be drawn paral Jel to c, b, through thefe points, d, c, will be divided in the fame proportion ; and if from 1, 2, 3, on d, e, lines be drawn parallel to d, b. c, b, will be divided into equal parts alfo, or in proportion to d, c. Thus, fup poſe we wanted a line equal to one-fourth of the rec tangular fide of the triangle, draw c, d, at random, and take any convenient opening of the compaffes, and lay on 1, 2, 3, d, draw then the given line d, b, in any pofition to c, d through b draw b, c, the bafe ; and lastly, 1, 1, parallel to d, b, then will 1 , 1, be one-fourth of 342 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. d, b; alfo 2, 2, one half and 3 , 3, three-fourths of d, b. The fame thing may be effected, when the bafe of the triangle is only half the length of c, b, as b, b, fig. 5, where obferve the lines 1 , 2, 3, are the ſame in re ſpect of the fide of the triangle d, b, as in fig. 4. In fig. 8, the triangle c, d, b, fhews that in whatever ratio b. d. be divided, if the baſe c, b, be biſected at 2, and 2 , 2 , be drawn parallel to d, b, the parts on the line 2, 2, are each of them half of the correſpondents on d, b; for the lines c 1 , e 2, c 3, c 4, are each of them the hypothenuſe of a triangle, and all the triangles are equally bifected by the line 2, 2, at their common baſe c, b, therefore 2, 4, is equal half b 1—2, 5, equal half b 2, and fo of the other. • PROBLEM V. fig. 6. To divide a given line, B, C, into feven equal parts -Take any opening of the compaffes, and draw any line B, D, to which draw, by turning two arches, H, G, parallel ; on B, D, turn the faid opening of the compaffes fix times, from B to D, and from Gto H, lay on the fame number of openings. Laftly, draw a line from to 6, and from 2 to 5, &c. and the line B, G, will be accurately divided as propoſed. Obferve-It is of no confequence whether the acci dental opening of the compaffes be more or less than the divifion fought for, which ever way it be, the effect is the fame on the line B, G. PROBLEM VI. fig. 7. To find the true centre of any fegment or entire circle- Let c, d, r, be the fegment of a circle, whole centre is required, draw the chord c, d, or any other greater or lefs, and from d, draw the chord d, r, and by problem 1ft bifect thefe chords, which will meet in GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 343 1 3, the true centre. In like manner may the centre of a complete circle be found, when the original one has been erafed ; for by making any three points on the circumference, and proceeding with the chords as has been deſcribed, the true centre may be found. And the workman, for whofe fake chiefly thefe problems are prefented, may reduce theſe further to practice by ob ferving, that if he wants the centre of any archway, fo as to fit to a board that will join every way clofe to the arch, he may fit a fhort length of thin deal, fuppofe 18 inches long, to an arch fix or ſeven feet wide, which being correctly done, then defcribe on a floor, the curve by the edge of the board ; and if any two chords be drawn to this curve, and they are bifected as above, the centre of the whole arch will thus eafily be found. SECTION II. On the use of the Drawing Inftruments. plate 2 . By duly confidering the feven proceeding fimple pro blems, which every mechanic ought indiſpenſably to know, as the bafis of geometrical drawing, the uſe and propriety of a cafe of inftruments will more readily appear. In a complete cafe, there are only three inftru ments which merit explanation, the reft are fo eafily underſtood, as to render it quite unneceſſary to ſay any thing refpecting them. OF THE SCALE OF 10ths. Fig 1. is an ivory fcale of tenths, by which may be obtained any hundredth part, added to the large divifions I ,.2, 3, 4, 5, which may be confidered under any deno mination of meaſurement, as a foot, yard, fathom, &c. To conftruct the fcale, draw 11 lines at equal diſtances, and parallel to each other; then affigning any part as a foot, yard, &c. as 10, 10, divide it into 10 equal parts, 344 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. and from each part draw a line oblique and parallel, by problem 3, to each other, as the fcale fhews ; whence it is evident, that the pace 10, 10, is divided into 100 parts. In ufing the fcale, fuppofe we want one foot and one hundredth part, apply the compaffes on the ſecond line from the bottom to one on the oblique line ; if two hundredth parts to 12 on the third line, and fo on up wards. Hence it is obvious, that the one oblique line increaſes the length to ten, hundredth, parts more, than the fimple large divifion 0, 1, of whatever denomination it may be ; confequently every fuch line increaſes by 10 degrees or parts, which demonftrates that the ſpace 10, 10, is thus accurately divided into 100 parts-And laftly, if we want a foot, &c. and one tenth of a foot, we have only to apply to the upper divifions on the under line, as is clear. Ifwe wish to have the ſpaces 10, 10, divided into 12, to anſwer the number of inches in a foot, we muſt then draw 13 lines parallel, and at equal diſtances, and pro ceed to take any hundredth and forty-fourth part of an inch, as was done before in the hundredth parts. OF THE PROTRACTOR. plate 2. fig. 3. The protractor is a brafs femi-circle, divided into 180 degrees, from each extremity of the diameter, ſo that the quantity of any angle may be taken, from either end of the inſtrument; and for this purpoſe, the diameter of the inftrument has a mark in its centre, as at a, which is applied to the point of any angle, the fubftance or opening of which, is meaſured by obferving the de gree which is cut by the limb of the triangle. Thus, if the angle of the two lines in fig. 2 be meaſured, by applying the centre a of the protractor to A, fig. 2, and caufing the diameter of the protractor to coincide with. the line B, the upper angular line will be found to cut GEOMETRICAL DRAWING . 345 exactly on 20, which afcertains the quantity to be 20 degrees. The protractor is not only uſeful in meafur ing, but in laying down angles of any degree-If we want to lay down one of 90 degrees, from any given. line, then let the fide A B of the protractor coincide with the given line, and make a point at 90, which is the zenith of the inftrument, and the two lines to each other will fubtend an angle of 90 degrees, written 90° ; and as it is demonftrably clear that lines of this angle are perpendicular to each other, fo the angle they form is called a right angle, and is the only one which is not either acute or obtuce ; that is, which is not either more or lefs flat or fharp. All angles more than 90° are obtuce ; and thofe lefs, are termed acute, of which there are two that ſhould be particularly noticed by cabinet makers and upholsterers, namely, the angle 45°, which is the diagonal of any fquare, or the miter angle ; and the angle 60°, which is the fide of an equilateral triangle, or one having all its fides of the fame length, a property which no other triangle has, from any of whofe fides biſected, a line being drawn perpendicular to it, cuts the oppoſite angle as at c, d, fig. 6, and if a line be drawn in the fame manner from either of the other fides, as at B s, it will give the centre of a circle that may be infcribed or circumscribed to the triangle. Laftly, ifthe fide a d be bifected as the other, as at n, and by joining the three points B nc, we have an equi lateral triangle, whofe fides are equal, b B half the fide of the large triangle, hd a which is to the ſmaller, as 4 to 1 ; and if sb be produced, and is interfected by an arch, whoſe radius is s h, as at-p, hp will then be the fide of a regular hexagon, that may be infcribed in a circle whofe radius is sh, s dor s e ; whence it is evident that every circle contains fix equilateral triangles , whoſe fides are equal to the femi diameter, or radius, of the circle that circumfcribes them. 346 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING . As there are in fome cafes of inftruments, a newly invented, ivory or ſcale protractor; it may be proper to fhew that they are both on the fame principle, and have the fame effect in meaſuring or laying down angles, as is obfervable, from the manner in which it is defcribed on the plate, in connection with the circular protractor ; where it is eaſily feen that the degrees in both coincide; but that in the ivory protractor, the degrees are as tangents to their respective fines, and thofe on the circular are equal divifions on the circumference . OF THE SECTOR. plate 2. Sector, in a geometrical ſenſe, is a part of a circle com prehended between two radii and the arch, as the figure 2. Hence the inftrument obtained its name, as in opening the legs they defcribe more or lefs of an arch, comprehended within them, forming a mixed triangle. The great advan tage of the ſector above the common fcales, is that it is made to fuit any radii or ſcales of any fize. By the lines of chords, fines, &c. on the ſector we have lines of chords, fines, &c. to any radius, as far as the two limbs of the inftrument may be extended, until they become a right line to each other. The general utility of the fector is founded on the geometrical principle, that fimilar triangles have their homologous fides proportional ; an idea of which, may be conceived th let the lines AB. A 10, fig. 2, repreſent the legs of the fector, and I , 1, 2, 2, two equal fections from the centre A. If now the points I , I , 2,2, be connected by right lines, they will be parallel to each other; therefore the triangles A 1 , 1. A 2 , 2, will be fimilar, and confequently the fides A 1. A 1. A 2. A 2, proportional ; that is, as A 1, is to I, I , fo is A 2, to 2, 2 ; whence if AI be the half, third, or fourth, A 2, I, I, will be a half, third, or fourth of 2, 2. In this example it GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 347 H is half; for as A 1 is half A 2, fo is I1 , 1 , half 2, 2 ; whence it is evident by the fame reaſoning, that ifthe line A i be produced till it be ten times its length, as it is at No. 10, the parallel line 10, 10, will contain its parallel at No. 1, I, ten times, and fo in proportion of all the other numbers. Hence we have the line of lines upon the ſector, marked LL. which fig. 2 on the plate, reprefents, and which the learner cannot fail of underſtanding after what has been obferved : therefore fuppofe the line D E to be divided into feven equal parts, take the given line D E in the compaffes and open the legs of the fector, and fixing one foot on 7, let the other leg of the fector be opened or contracted till the other foot fall exactly on the corre fponding 7: in this pofition let the ſector remain, and taking the compaffes to 1, 1 , contract them till they coin cide with that ſpace : which opening applied to the given line D E it will divide it correctly into feven equal parts. If the given line D E is required to be divided into ten, or any other number, as 9, 8, &c. it muſt be taken as before and placed on 9, 9, 8 , 8, or any other, and the compaffes contracted to 1 , 1 -for once 9 is 9 --once 8 is 8, and fo on ; and thus it is clear that the ſector performs both multiplication and divifion ; but it is further obfervable from the line of lines, that as the first order of numbers from 1 to 10 are again divided into 10 equal parts, that the divifion of the given line D E may be multiplied to 100, that is 10 times 10; and to make the operation more eafy, if the given line D E be placed on 5, 5, then it will be 5 times 10, or into 50 equal parts by taking one 10th of the line I , I at this opening, which may be done by placing the compaffes on the 2d next ſmall divifion after I, 1 , and taking the difference of the two lines, which will be a 50th part, which being divided will be a 100th part. It is further to be noticed, that whatever the opening of the fector may be, the dif • 1 I 348 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. ference of any two parallel lines next to each other is the 100th part of the opening ; this may be easily proved if the given line D E be considered 10 times longer, for then what is now one 10th of D E at prefent, will then be 100th part of DE made 10 times longer. The com mon 4 inch fectors will not open to more than a line of 8 inches in length ; but if a line, to be divided into 10, be 17 inches long, by doubling the divifion of a 10th of the former, the latter will thus be divided into 10 alſo, and by the fame rule any length whatever. OF THE LINE OF POLIGONS. On the fame fide of the fector, is a line for finding an octagon, or other poligon, that may be infcribed in a circle of any radius. The line is marked POL on each fide, and is to be thus ufed-fuppoofe a, G, fig 6, the radius, take this opening in the compaffes, and opening the fector, place it on 6 6 ; then if a duodecagon be wanted, let the ſector remain at this opening, and contract the com paffes to 12, 12 on this line, then will the line 12, 12, be contained 12 times in the circumference of a circle drawn by the radius a G, as will appear ftill more clear from fig. 6, by taking the chord of 30 from G to 30, or from G to 12 , which will turn 6 times in the circumference of the femi- circle G, 80, h, and confequently 12 times inthe whole circle ; and thus the chord G 11, G 10, G 9, &c. will respectively turn 11, 10, 9 times, &c. on the faid circle, forming the different poligons, which have their names written from their particular chords at fig. 6, where obferve the quantity of degrees contained in the angle of each poligon is marked. OF THE LINE OF CHORDS. The line of chords is marked CC, on the fame fide of the fector. A chord, is a right line connecting the two 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 349 extremes of an arch, as A, B, fig. 16. plate 1. or h, d, fig. 6. plate z. and is always fhorter than a diameter ; therefore it divides the whole circle into two unequal parts, called the greater and lefs fegments of a circle. The ufe of the chord line on the fector is for meaſuring the quan tity of any angle, and is in this reſpect fimilar to the pro tractor ; but with this advantage, that the protractor is limited to one radius, but the chord line of the fector is not ; but is to be opened to any radius placed from e to e, on the brass centres, as was defcribed before on the line of lines, and thofe of poligons. When the chord line is thus fixed, if we want the chord of 30, place the compaffes on 30, 30, which is the fide of a duodecagon, as before mentioned. And if we want the chord of 15° for a twenty-four fided figure, place the com pafs feet on the ftroke between 10 and 20, which gives it. And if a pentagon be wanted, place the radius, on 50, 50, which will increafe the chord by 10 degrees, when the compaffes at that opening is placed on 60, 60, which will form a five-fided poligon or pentagon, as at 70, fig. 6. Laftly, by the chord line, any quadrant of a circle maybe divided into 180 equal parts. This will appear, if it be confidered, that the radius of any circle is the chord of 60, which leaves 30 to compleat the quadrant. The first order of divifions on the chord line divides the radius or femi-diameter of the given circle into 6 equal parts , 3 of which added, makes up 9 in the quadrants, as in fig. 16. plate 1. The fecond order of thefe divifions increaſes the first 10 times, by which the radius is divided into 6c, and the 3 remaining into 30, which are 90 in the quadrant. Thethird order, or ſhorteſt lines of the chord fcale, increaſes the divifions 60 more, which makes 150, and the 3 re maining into 30 more, which makes 180. 180 痛 350 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. OF THE LINE OF SINES. We come nowto the other fide of the ſector, on which are fines and tangents marked SS, TT. A fine is a right line drawn perpendicular to the diameter of any circle continued till it touch its circumference, as thofe lines are marked fines at fig. 3. plate 2. By theſe fines, which are parallel to each other, and drawn from equal divifions on the circumference, we may deſcribe a true ellipfis, as fhall be fhewn afterwards. The fines of an arch maybe found by opening the fector, and taking the radius of the circle as before, and placing it on the brafs centres on 90, 90. The fector remaining fixed at this opening, we may obtain all the fines, from 10 to 90, which is the whole fine of the arch, as at 90. And thus, it appears, that by laying on the fines on the whole fine a 90, a circle may be drawn without the compaffes ; for it is demonftrably clear, that the points of their interfection are the true points of the arch to which they are the fines. OF THE TANGENTS. A tangent line, is that which is drawn perpendicular to the diameter, and at the extremity of any arch, fo as only to touch but not interfect the arch , as the line marked Tangent is at fig. 3. and obſerve, that the Nos. 10, 20, 30, &c. are found on the fector on the lines T T. To find the tangent of any degree, the radius of a circle muſt be applied on the brafs centres as before, over 4, 5, 4, 5. Then is the inftrument fixed for any tangent from 10 to 45, but if the tangent of 50, 60, 70, 75, are wanted, take the fame radius as before in the compaffes, and extend the limbs of the fect or till the feet of the compaffes coincide with 45, 45, on the additional tangent lines marked tt, by which opening the fcctor is prepared for taking the other tangents. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 351 .. OF SECANTS. A fecant line, is one drawn from the centre of a circle, Cutting the circumference, and meeting with the tangent without, as the line a, B. On the common fector, the fecant ſcale is fixed and can only be uſed for one radius, taken from the centre on the braſs joint of the inftrument, and extended to 20, on the lines marked s s. With this opening deſcribe a circle, then, if the fecant 30, 40, &c. be required, fix the foot of the compaffes on the centre, on the braſs joint, and extend it to 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 75. But it may be obſerved, that if the fector be ftretched quite to a ftraight line, the fame will be effected when the radius is equal to 20, 20, meafured when in this pofition. SECTION III. Of Geometrical Figures. PROBLEM I. fig. 9. plate 1. The fide an of any poligon being given to find circles, in which may be inſcribed the fide a, n, from four to twelve times. With the fide a , n, deſcribe from the points a and n, the arches a 1, n 1, interfecting at 1 , through which draw a perpendicular. Take then a 1 , and on this per pendicular line lay on a 1 to 7, and divide 1, 7, into 6 equal parts. Set down two of thofe parts from 1 to 0, p, then will a, p, a, o, a 1 , a 2 , a 3, a 4 , a 5, a 6, and a 7, be the radii or femi diameters of circles, in which the fide a, n, may be infcribed from 4 to 12, as will readily appear by taking a, n, and placing it from 4 to 4, which is a quarter of a circle ; and laftly, lay a, n, on the circles 8, 8, 12, 12, and it will turn twice in the former and thrice in the latter ; which proves, that in the entire circle an eight and a twelve-fided poligon would be thus formed, and fo of the other, as fix would take a, n, 11 times, five 10, four 9, three 8, two 7, one 6, ought 5, and p 4times. 350 GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. PROBLEM II. fig. 10. The circle being given, to find the fide of any poligon, that may be infcribed . Take the radius of the given circle, as a, s, and de fcribe the arch 2, 56 ; then is the line 2 , 6, one- third of the circle, and forms the triangle 2, 1, 6, which the cabinet maker fhould obferve, gives the three points where the claws of ftands and tables are fixed, that have round pillars. Take the radius and fet it from b to 12, and the re mains is the fide of the duodecagon, that is, from 12 to a, and from a to 24, is the fide of a twenty - four fided poligon ; from a to 8 of an octagon, to 6 a hexagon, to 5 a pen tagon, b a quadrangle. For a heptagon , nonagon, decagon, and endecagon, divide any of the quadrants a, 1,9, into fo many equal parts, as the propofed poligon contains fides, fuppofe 7 as fhewn on the fig. then take four of thofe parts, and they will be the fide fought for, and what ever number the quadrant is divided into, four of thele parts must always be taken for the fize of the poligon. PROBLEM III . fig. 11. Of the Covering of a Sphere or Globe. Defcribe a circle equal to the diameter of the fphere, Divide the quadrant into as many equal parts as there are fections wanted in the fphere, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ; draw them perpendicular to the diameter, and fetting the com paffes at o, carry thefe round to the other diameter, which diameter continue to 6, and take the space a 1 , and lay it from a 1 to N 2 ; then take 1 , 2, 2, 3, &c . and place them as before, at No. 2, till the whole are laid on. Set then the compafies at 6 N° 2, and extending the other foot to 1, defcribe the arch, and in the fame manner at 2, 3, 4, 5, From b perpendicular to 5, draw a line to the centre «, which feveral portions of arches are to be laid on double, GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 353 on thofe at N 11 , according to their rotation or number. And having thus laid down the points, draw the curve b, 1, 2, 3, &c. on each fide, which is a fection of the ſphere ; and both of them comprehend its covering, which accord ing to this figure, would require 12 pieces to cover it. To defcribe the fections as they would appear on a plane parallel to the fphere as fhewn fig 12, fuppofe o 1 , one 6th of the quadrant; then from 1, draw the chord 1, a bifect the chord, and draw a line perpendicular to it, and the centre of the fection will be at b. Extend the compaffes from b to a, and on a 1 defcribe the fection. From the centre of the chord 1a, draw g f, parallel to the diameter ; which will at once bifect all the chords, whoſe centres are at d, e, h, 1, from which the other fections are drawn. PROBLEM IV. fig. 13. To draw an elipfis by 2 circles, interfecting each other. Let A B be the length of the tranfverfe diameter ; divide it into three equal parts , and take one for the radius of the circles which defcribe, and they will interfect each other as at 1, 2. Through I draw 1 , 3, and 1 , 4, cutting the centres ; from 2 do the fame. Laftly, take 1 , 5, in the compaffes, and with it defcribe the arch 5, 6, and from 2 defcribe the oppofite one, and the oval is completed. PROBLEM V. fig. 14. - To draw an elipfis by 2 circles , tangent to each other. Let A B be the tranfverfe diameter; which divide into four, one of which is the radius, by which 2 circles are to be drawn. Then make 1 , 3, 2, an equilater triangle, and alfo 4, 1 , 2 ; and from 4 defcribe the arch d, e, and from 3, the archf, g, which completes the oval. If the oval be thought too long, its width may be increafed by dividing the femi conjugate diameter into three equal parts ; and A.a . 354 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. drawing a line from h, through the centre i, which gives h, i, for the radius of the 2d curve; and for the reft, it is enough to inſpect the figures . PROBLEM VI. fig. 15. To draw an elipfis by the fector. Deſcribe a femi- circle, whofe diameter G A is equal to the length of the oval . Take b, d, for half the ſhort one, and on the line of fines, place b, d, from S to S at the brafs centres. Divide the quadrant into nine equal parts, and draw the fines perpen dicular to the diameter. The fector beingfixed as directed, take the fines 80, 70, 60, &c . respectively with the com paffes, and transfer them to the fines 80, 70, 60, &c. on the fig; then will the points thus marked form a quarter of a true clipfis. The other quarters may eafily be drawn, if the entire circle be defcribed, and the fines being found on one femi, may at once be drawn through the other. Note, a very large oval may thus be drawn by means of a 41 inch fector only, which may be opened to about 8 inches, con fequently it is capable of defcribing one any length by 17 inches broad . And I fhall only mention that fuch is the extenfive ufe of this little inftrument, that by it a circle may be drawn without the help of compafles if the feveral fines are interfected, as fhewn on the right of fig. 15; which the reader cannot but perceive, if he have attended to the preceding operations by the fector. PROBLEM VII. fig. 17. To draw an oval by a line and 2 centres . Make a, ", equal to half the tranfverfe diameter, that is, take c, d, and place it from 2, the fhort, to a on the long diameter; at which point fix a bradawl , and one alfo at the other end, the fame diftance from the centre c; then with a pencil at P, fixed to the line, the oval may be drawn. PROBLEM VIII. fig. 21 . To defcribe an eliptic arch by interfecting lines. Let GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 355 03 s A Bbe the opening of the arch, and o, n the depth, and make S equal o, n ; divide half the opening and half the depth of the arch, each into five equal parts, as expreffed by the numbers. From 1 , 2 , 3, 4, onthe depth drawthe feveral lines to n; then from S draw the point 4, on A B to 4, which gives the first point, and fo of all the other, as is apparent from the fig. PROBLEM VIII . fig. 18. To draw any mixed or gothic arch. The fpan and depth of the arch being given, and the angle of its curviture as a, b, c, divide a, b, c, into equal parts, and c, b, intothe fame number ; from or any other point, more or less from the centre ; as the arch is required to be more or leſs curved at c, or at a. From 5, 5, draw a line, and from 4, 4, from 3 , 3, 2, 2, 1 , I , the interfections of which give the true arch. In this manner, may almoſt any ſhape ofa curve be acurately found . PROBLEM IX. fig. 20. To find the centre and 2 diameters of any elipfis. Draw any two parallel lines, as 1, 2, 3, 4, which divide from the places where they interfect the fides of the elipfis, and their centres will be at p, q; through thefe points draw a right line, which divide from the points where the line To find cuts the elipfis , as at 5, 6, then is S the centre. the diameters ; defcribe on the centre S any circle that will interfect the fides of the elipfis , and from the points 7, 8 draw a line, and through S draw another parallel to it, which will be the conjugate, bifect the line 8, 7 as at 9 ; then will a line through S 9, be the tranfverfe diameter. PROBLEM X. fig. 19. To draw with the utmost difpatch a femi-octagon, fo that its fides fhall be regular. The diameter being given as 356 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. A B, divide it as at c, from which draw two fquares, and draw the diagonal F, with which defcribe the arch F 1. Fix the compaffes at A, defcribe 1, 2, then is A2 half the fide of the octagon. Or it may be performed ftill quicker, by making F the centre, and defcribing the arch C 3. SECTION IV. OfGeometrical Lines, practically applied. fig. 1. plate 3. Let A B be confidered as the under edge of a facia for an eliptic bed cornice ; A 6 is the depth of the curve, and 6c, the chord line. Bifect the chord line, and by problem 1, plate I, draw a line perpendicular to its centre, which will meet the perpendicular A 6, continued downwards ; which will be the common centre of the lines, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Divide the depth of the upper curve into 6 equal parts at the haunch, and from I lay the ruler to 1 , and from 2 to 2, which cut the points a and b, from 3 to 3, which cut the point c, and fo of the reft. Laftly, when the upper curve is thus compleated, lay on the width ofthe cornice with the compaffes on the feveral lines tending to the centre ; and obferve that the mitre C 1 , at the haunch tends alſo to the fame. FIG. II. If the cornice be a regular circle, it may be drawn without the trouble of a long lath for a centre, as is com monly practifed. Thus ; fuppofe F E the chord of the arch, draw E a, perpendicular to it ; and divide Fa, o E E a, into the fame number of equal parts. Then on E a direct a line from 4 to F, cutting at 4, 4. In the fame manner, muſt 3, 2, 1 , be drawn to F. FIG. III. Of lines for a circular hipped tefter, The line 1, 3 is half the width, and 1, 2 the height of the arched teſters ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 359 then four of thefe feven , and placing them from d to a, on @draw the remains of the ſcotia from c to b. - OF THE CYMARECTA, fig . 2, 3, 4. The cymarecta varies in proportion in the different orders. In the Tufcan, its height and projection are 12 minutes ; the Doric 7 ; the Ionic 7 ; the Compofite 7, and the Corinthian 6. This moulding is drawn by three different methods or centres, according to the fancy or other circumſtance that may induce the architect to prefer one to the other-Ift, draw the diagonal 4, 5, and biſẹct it at 2, through which draw the line 1 , 2, 6, then are the points 1 and 6 the centres, and the arches are perfect quadrants. Fig. 3, bifect the diagonal at 2 , and divide one half into 6 , and 4 of theſe are the centres as Fig. 4, the diagonal is alfo bifected, and one half as 1 , 2 is taken for the centres by interfecting the two arches as at 3. at o. OF THE CYMAREVERSA, fig. 8, 9. This moulding may be drawn in the profile in the fame manner as the cymarecta, but is fometimes quirked, as at N 9, in which caſe divide the height and projection into two equal parts ; make the centre 2 equal to the chord of the arch 4 b , and make a 3 one fixth of the pro jection, and draw the radius 1 , 3, equal 1 , 4, and I will be the centre. This moulding is generally uſed in the Ionic and Corinthian architraves, and alfo above the Ionic volute. OF THE BED MOULDING, fig. 5. The bed moulding confifts of a hollow or cavetto and a quarter round; it is placed under the corona of the Tuf can entablature, to which it ſeems peculiar. Its propor tion is as 14 projection, to 14 or 15 in height, which 360 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, being divided into eight equal parts, give three for the cavetto, one for the fillet, and four for the ovalo, the centres of which are 1 , 2, being perfect quadrants. OF THE NECKING OR COLLARINO, fig . 6, 7. The Tuſcan collarino, or necking, fig . 6, may be divided into four equal parts : when it is introduced in a detached manner in works of architecture, two of which are for the aftragal, one for the fillet, and one for the hollow, which is a perfect quadrant, and the aftragal a femi-circle. But when this moulding is placed at the neck of a column, it bears the following proportions and parts, as in fig. 7 ; the aftragal is three minutes, the fincture or fillet one and a half, and the apophyge three in height. In projection the fincture is three, and the aftragal one and a half, which brings it to a femi-circle. The apophyge is divided into five equal parts, and fix of theſe are for its height as at 1 ; draw the diagonal 1 , 2, and bifect it, and draw the line 6 perpendicular to it, and make 1 , 6 equal to fix equal parts, which will be the centre. In this manner the apophyge of every column is drawn, except the Tufcan, which has its centre in 5, confequently is a quadrant. OF THE SURBASE MOULDING, fig. 10. This moulding may be termed an inverted ſcotia, it being proportioned the fame as fig. 1. The three dif ferent modes of finiſhing at the top, may be adopted in cabinet work. In all the fquares at the top it is fuppofed to be veneer, and the bead may be put on feparate, and the veneer brought over it to hide the joint. Laftly, double bead may be managed in the fame manner, to leffen the projection of the inverted ſcotia, when much projection is objected to. the GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 357 divide 3 , I into any number of equal parts , and draw the ordinates 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Draw then the hip line 4, 5, and continue the ordinates to that line ; and draw lines from each perpendicular to 4, 5. Take then the line 1 , 2, and layit at the hip from 5 to 6, and fo of the other ordinates 2, 3, 4, &c. and when the arches are raiſed perpendicular on the tefter lath, they will coincide with each other. Ob. ſerve the ribs are dove-tailed into A the centre ; and in framing the hips, there must be two ribs to each ; fo that each quarter ofthe tefter may be taken to pieces ſeparately. FIG. IV. This is an irregular octagon tefter, with an ogee roof, which is introduced for exercife ; as there are both lines for the ribs, and covering, fo that both branches of workmen are concerned to underítand the lines : for then there can be no caſe ofthis fort but what they may maſter. Let the mixed curve line 1 , 0, 2 be drawn by two quadrants of circles inverted to each other, and divide I, 3 into equal parts as before ; but at o there is a fubdivifion for the fake of greater accuracy. Draw the ordinates to the hip rib, as before, and place the feveral heights on a 7, 68, c9, through which draw the ogee as at 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 , 12, which will be the hip rib. For the covering of the tefter ; the lines from the ordi nates a, b, c, d, e, f, are continued round on the plan to a b, which bifect by a line to g from the centre and on this line lay on the feveral ſpaces taken from the hip rib as from 6 to 7, from 7 to 8, and ſo on ; for obferve the line from 6 to g, is the curve line 6, 7, 5, ftretched out and the feveral lines acroſs, on 6 g are equal in length to thoſe on the plan A as h, i, j, k, and give the points through which the curve for the covering paffes. Thus ; from the plan A take the line n, h, and place it on o, h, and ſo of the rest. 353 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING . OF THE PEDIMENT. fig. V. Make a 9 the whole extent of the full cornice, and divide it into nine equal parts as fhewn ; then take two of theſe for the height of the pitch from the line a 9, as from no; obferve the cymarecta, is taken off from the level cornice, and only continued on the pitch, and return at the extremities . The raking moulding at fig. 6, fhews how the cymarecta is to be worked fo as to anſwer in the miters and returns ; B is the natural ſtate of the moulding, the projection of which take to G, and draw the perpendi cular lines on ; draw the diagonal p q, and divide it into fix equal parts, at I, 2, &c. from which draw lines perpen dicular to pq, till they touch the curves, which are the fame as at B. Draw C D perpendicular to the raking moulding, and make D E equal n o, and divide the diagonal as before ; and make I , I on c, equal to I , I on G, fo of the reſt, and join the points by the two curves. In openpediments, the moulding returns as at F, which muſt be drawn as before ; the projection E Dis placed on a level line i k, and km, is drawn perpendicular ; and obferve, that the parallel lines divide each diagonal in due proportion to each other, and the perpendicular lines from each point which they interfect on the diagonal are all of one length. Hence the workman fhould obferve, that there are three different profiles of the cymarecta to be regarded in 20 open pediment ; and in a clofe one only two. SECTION V. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Of the Scotia Moulding, fig. 1 , plate 4. So called becauſe of the ſtrong ſhadow it produces in the deep part of the neck. The Attic fcotia runs about 4 minutes high; the Corinthian 4 ; and the Compofite 5 . Divide the height, or 4 into feven equal parts, and with three of thefe on S defcribe the circle from d to c; take PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 363 OF PERSPECTIVE. SECTION I. Of the Definition and Etymology, with fame Strictures on the Term Perspective. Perspective is the art of reprefenting any object as it appears to the eye on a plane, fuppofed to be interpofed betweenthe object and the eye. The term feems to be derived from the latin perfpicio to fee, or to difcover plainly; this is Dr. Johnſon's opinion, but I prefume to question whether it be not more fuitably deduced from the verb perfpelo, to take a thorough view of, or to fit out a fhow, that is, to exhibitobjects to view. This etymology certainly agrees more with the practice of perspective than the former ; for the art does not profefs to make objects more clearly feen than they are in nature according to their diſtance from the eye, but to repre fent them as they are; or would be feen on a tranfparent plane, placed parallel, or otherwife, between the object and the eye of the fpectator. As a clear and correc comprehenfion of the theory of perfpective depends ma terially on an accurate definition of the term perspective, it may be proper to take notice of fome, which are heterogenious, or inconfiftent with the genuine theory of the art. By this means the learner may be more powerfully ftruck with the real nature of perfpective, than if the difference were not thus pointed out. It is however proper to obferve, that a falfe definition of the term may be given, when it is fucceeded by genuine rules of practice. The British Encyclopædia defines perſpective to be " The art of drawing on a plane fur face, true refemblances or pictures of objects, as the objects themselves appear to the eye from any diftance and fituation, real or imaginary." Mr. Kirby, thus, " Perfpective is the art of drawing upon any furface the reprefentation of objects as they 364 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . 1 appear to the eye. " Both theſe definitions are the fame in fenfe, but are equally incorrect : the latter, however, would be true, on fuppofition that the reprefentation were on a ſpherical furface, concentric to the furface of the eye. The former limits his definition to a plane or ftraight furface, and the latter, doubtlefs, had an eye to no other. The difference of theſe definitions from the true one may eafily be understood, by confidering the line a, b, fig. I, as the picture, or a fection of the rays Ad, and Ae, ifluing from any original object d, e, to the eye A, and being cut by the line a, b, which is the ſection of the ftraight picture ; c, f will be the repreſentation of the original object d, e on the faid plane, and on the curved picture or fection 2, 4 will be the reprefentation ; the difference of which is obvious, and is in proportion as the fubtence of the angle 4 A 2 is to the tangent c, f, of the faid arch. It is alfo evident, that this difference will increafe from two caufes, i. e. either from the increaſed length of any original line d, e, or by its approach to the ſection or picture a, b, which will have the fame effect ; but if the eye A be removed further from the fection or picture, the effect will be contrary; and hence the neceffity of choofing a diftance for any picture fuited to take off the distortion that ariſes from this difference, which is always in proportion to the length of the diftance, or the length from the point of fight A, to a, b, the picture, which is A B. From which it will appear, that though perfpective is not the reprefentation of objects on a ſtraight ſurface, as they ap pear to the eye, but as they appear on a tranfparent plane, as glafs interpofed between the fpectator and the object ; yet we must acknowledge that it is an excellence in perſpective to bring fuch a reprefentation by its ftrict laws, as near as may be to their appearance to the eye. When therefore any author defines per ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING . 361 OfThree Methods of drawing the IONIC VOLUTE. Method I. In fig. 12 let a 24, be equal to four teen minutes, and the eye equal three and a half minutes, or one eighth of the whole volute from a to 5; to this eye circumfcribe a fquare and draw the diagonals each way. From the eye at 24 draw to d, fig. 11 , and through the centre c, draw s , d, fig. 11 equal to 24, b, fig. 12, and d, a equal 24, a; draw then s , a, and from st defcribe the arch D divided into twenty-four equal parts; through which parts draw the tangents on d, a, and num ber them 2 , 3, 4, &c . to 24, which are the feveral radii, by which the twenty-four portions of circles, of which the volute is compofed, are drawn : therefore take c, a onfig. 11, and with this opening, fixing the compaſſes at a, fig. 12, cut a ſmall arch on the eye of the volute, and do the fame on 2, fo as to cut the other arch in the eye as at o; then from the point of interfection draw the arch a, 2 ; proceed then to the next radius taken from c to 2, and placing it on 2, and 3, and cutting a point onthe eye ofthe volute as before, deſcribe the arch 2 , 3 ; and fo ofall the other to 24, which completes the volute. Obferve the inner contour begins at b, and muſt be drawn in the fame manner as the outer one, after having divided b, a, into twenty-four equal parts, by means of a triangle as at a, o, m, fig. 13, which will be more eafily underſtood by conſulting the deſcription of that figure. Method II. fig. 13. As before, the eye of the volute is one eighth of a, b, which fhould be divided into eight equal parts, placing the eye on the fifth divifion from a, which leaves three parts below the eye draw then a fmall fquare within the eye, whofe fides ſhall be equal half the diameter of the eye. Divide the fide of the fquare into fix equal parts, and draw from the centre of the divided fide two oblique lines, to which draw the JL 362 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. faid divifions, and they will find twelve centres by which to deſcribe the whole volute : take then the compaſſes and fixing one foot on centre 1 , extend the other to a, and with it defcribe the quadrant a, c, on 2 contract them to c, and defcribe c, b on 3 and 4 ; do the fame and the turn of the volute will be brought to e once round. Hence it must be evident, that as there are two more fquares infcribed in the fquare 1 , 2, 3, 4, fo they will afford eight more centres for the completion of the vo lute. For the inner line of the volute divide a, m, by the triangle a, o, m, one ſide of which being divided into twelve equal parts, and the feveral lines being drawn parallel to a, m, a, m, will thereby be accurately divided into twelve équal parts , as by problem 4. Laſtly, take 11 onthe triangle, and place it at c, and take 10 place it at b, and ſo on; and by the fame openings of the compaf fes, that were uſed in turning the outer contour, defcribe the inner by varying the centre a very ſmall matter. In this example, the volute is fhewn in connection with the capital of the column, and the learner muſt obſerve that the line A Dis the outfide of the fhaft; that the dotted curve at u is the ovalo of the cap ; that the bead under the ovalo is the fize of the eye of the volute, and governed by it. Method III. fig. 14, which is fimply the eye of the volute on a large fcale, having the twelve centres marked diftinctly. Having divided thirty-two minutes, the whole height of the capital into nine and a half equal parts, as fhewn at fig. 13, eight of thefe are for the volute, and having placed the eye as directed in the pre ceding methods, begin to defcribe the first arch at 1 , fig. 14, then 2 and fo on ; and as the divifion of the eye is the only thing in which the third differs from the ſecond method, it is needlefs to fay any thing further upon it. • inmag.YomePa PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 365 ſpective as we have cited above, it is faying more for perfpective than what it in reality is ; and it is no wonder that certain perfons are difappointed in their expectations, when, by the ſtrict rules of perſpective, they produce objects with very long and extremely fhort corners, twiſted in their pofition, and their whole ap pearance distorted . But if they clearly understand, that perfpective reprefentations are no more than the ftereo graphic projection of objects on a plane furface ; they cannot but expect that folid geometrical figures or ob jects, projected on a right plane, muft in their own nature, produce in fome cafes, an unnatural appearance in the mere contour ; but which may be confiderably reduced, by placing the eye in the true point of fight, colouring or ſhading the reprefentation, and affigning a due diftance to the picture. Thefe judiciously combined, contribute effectually to the attainment of the perfection of the art ; which, as hinted at before, confifts in pro ducing pictures to have as much the appearance of nature as poffible. SECTION II. OfParticulars relating to the Theory of Perspective. Da Vinci has well obferved, that " Thoſe who be come enamoured of the practice of the art, without having previously applied to the diligent ftudy of the fcientific part of it, may be compared to mariners, who put to fea in a fhip without a rudder or compafs, and therefore cannot be certain of arriving at the wiſhed for port. Practice muſt always be founded on good theory." The truth of this obfervation I find conftantly verified in the courſe of my experience, in teaching perfpective, wherein is generally difcovered in young perfons, a pro penfity, haftily to apply to the practice, without troubling themſelves with either the imaginary or real 366 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. i 12 + difficulties of the theoretic part of the art. The confe quence of ſuch a procedure is, that in the general ap plication of perfpective, fuch learners will always find themfelves as much at a lofs as thofe who attempt to write correaly in any language, without the previous knowledge of the grammar peculiar to ſuch language. In the end, it proves the most expeditious and effectual method of learning this art, to attend to, at leaſt, a moderate degree of theory, and therefore I hope the fol lowing will not be thought tedious, efpecially when compared with what fome have written upon the fubject, which I confefs is truly adapted to difcourage that degree of enquiry into the theory, which is abfolutely el fential to a right underſtanding of this generally efteemed fine art. The more the learner knows of geometry previous to his entering upon perfpeaive, the quicker will he comprehend the theory of the art ; but taking it for granted that he is not in the leaft acquainted with it, I shall endeavour to interfperfe my theory with as much of it as is convenient, joined alfo with the practice of perfpeive, together with the nature of fhadows in com mon cafes. I have propofed this method for the fake of brevity, in comprehending the whole art; and for treating it in a more elegant and pleafing way; that the very dull, tedious, and disgustingly dry details, peculiar to thefe fuby Ets, may, as much as poflible be avoided, and that the whole may be compriſed in a fmall compaſs. I proceed then to the confideration of the elementary planes, which are the very doors at which we must enter into this fcience, if we would fee its internal beauties. The connection and dependence of the planes with each other, form the true fkeleton of the whole mafs, from whence the feparate members are derived, and can only be properly understood when they are confidered detachedly. The members of this fkeleton, are the points, lines, and furfa PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 367 ces, generated by the interfections of the elementary planes and lines with each other ; by which only a true foundation for practice can be laid. The elementary planes, are however only imaginary or fuppofitions, and are only deviſed for the illuftration of theoretic lines, that their con nection and dependence on each other may be more eafily comprehended : but they are not trifling fuppofitions, for without their aid, no fort of ftereographic projections can be properly difcuffed or understood. Let the reader there fore pay the most strict attention to fig. 1 and 2 , plate 1 , which exhibits the elementary planes with their principal interfections and points depending upon them. And that he may proceed with fome geometrical knowledge as a guide ; let him take notice of the following definitions, which will apply to thefe figures. Firft. A point is confidered without parts or magnitude, and in perspective or ftereography, points are fuppofed to be generated by the interfection or cutting of two lines, at any angle with each other ; for when lines are parallel to each other they cannot interfect or cut ; but they may, continued to fome plane, not parallel with them, produce their refpective points on the faid plane. Thus the parallel lines 1 , 3 , 2 , 4, in fig. 2, can never interfect each other, but they produce their refpective points 1 , 2, by being continued till they touch the plane H L D f, or cut the line D J. Second. A line is length, without breadth, whether right or curved. Aright line may alfo be confidered as the fhorteft diftance between any two points. Hence the points IC cannot be joined or meafured by any other line ſhorter than the right line IC which meaſures the diſtance between them. Therefore in perfpective this line is fometimes termed the direct radial, it being the fhorteft ray of a picture ; for it is as a line drawn perpendicular to the pupil of the eye I and to the centre C ofthe picture. 368 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . A right line may likewife be conceived, both in geome try and in perspective as generated by the interfection of two plain furfaces with each other, Thus ; imagine A B D J NKa plane furface parallel to the ground ; and fuppofe HLD Jto be another placed perpendicular to it, or paffing in this or any other direction through it ; then will the right line DOJ be generated or produced bytheir interfection . Third. A furface is that which has only length and breadth, having no refpect to thicknefs, as thofe of the cubes X M which may be conceived of without any idea oftheir folidity. Fourth. A plain furface is that which lies evenly between its boundaries, or through which if a right line be drawn. it will touch any two points in the furface. D Jis a right line croffing the furface A BDJNK; 1 2, are each a point in that furface, with which the right line DJ coincides, therefore A BDJNK is a plain furface. Hence, as fuch plain furfaces may exift in the mind, or be conceived of without any relation to fubftances ; the term plane is uſed in optics, ſtereography and perſpective to denote the feveral fections of which rays or lines are capa ble ; which fections according to their variety of pofitions, produce the numerous figures which are the objects of , perfpective drawing, and ftereographic projection. Of thefe planes there are five, comprehending the whole theory of perfpective ; three of which are principally used, but not altogether without fome dependence on the other two. SECTION III. OF THE ELEMENTARY PLANES. Of their use and dependence upon each other. Having in the foregoing fection prepared the way, understanding the elementary planes, we fhall nowcome more directly to their inveftigation. And, Firft, of the ground plane. In fig . 2 the letters A BNK PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 369 mark the boundaries of this plane. On this plane, which is generally confidered as horizontal, or parallel to it, are feated all original objects, by which we mean, all thoſe which are to be reprefented on the plane of the pic ture, fuch are the cubes X M. The extent of the ground plane only terminates with the boundaries of our fight, but with relation to a picture is to be reſtricted as a part to the whole, and ſhould be governed by the diſtance of the eye from the picture, as at G R fig. 5, and the height ofthe horizontal E C. If objects, as A B, fig. 5, be fo feated on the ground plane, as that their reprefentations on the plane of the picture ſhall be at A B, exceeding the bounds GR; their appearances will be diftorted or unnatural, as A B are in compariſon with F, which is the repreſentation of the fame cube. If C L, be conſidered as the diſtance of the eye from the picture, make C R equal to C L, then will ER be half the length of the picture, or half the boundaries of the ground plane. 6 Second. Of the plane of the picture. In fig. 2, the letters H L DJ comprehend this plane, which is generally confidered to be perpendicular to the ground plane, but it may be inclined; for the theory of vaniſhing planes and lines equally provides for the latter as for the former. The perſpective plane, as the plane of the picture is fometimes called, is that whereon is defcribed the images of original objects, as c, b, d, a, is of the face ofthe cube 6, 5, 4, 3, and b, e, its upper furface 6, 5, 7, 8, and o, p, of 12, 13, II, 14. And obferve, that thofe and all other images on the plane of the picture are produced by a fection of the rays, which are fuppofed to iffue by reflec tion from every part of a luminous body; which rays are repreſented by thoſe lines drawn from each angle of the original cubes X M to the eye I. Howthe ſection of theſe rays is performed, muſt be the fubject of future difcuf fion. But it will be proper to notice, that the paper, Bb 370 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 1 board, or canvass, on which we reprefent objects in per fpective, is to be confidered as the perfpective plane ; and when ever the learner perceives the coincidence fubfifting between them, the right knowledge of perfpective, may be faid to dawn upon his underſtanding, and he will foon perceive the beauty of the whole art. Third. Of the horizontal plane. This plane is confi dered as parallel to the ground, and is fuppofed to cut the boundaries of the eye or fight. To have a clear and proper conception ofthe horizontal plane, we muſt ſuppoſe ourſelves placed in the centre P. of an even and extenfive country, defcribed bythe line A D, fig. 7. We ſtand at P, and without obftruction are fuppoſed to viewthe whole fpace A D, which to the fpectator at P, will appear to rife to V and S, which is the perpendicular height of his eye; confequently if through V S, a line be drawn parallel to AD, then will V, S, reprefent the fection of the horizon tal plane, cutting the boundaries of our fight at V S; with which points the hemifphere feems to the eye at b, to be in contact : whence it is obvious, that all objects 1 , 2, 3, 4, as they recede from the eye towards S or V, diminiſh proportionably till they vaniſh in the points V and S. And this holds equally true, whether we ſuppoſe the objects to be higher than the eye, as trees or towers, at 5, 6, 7, 8, or not fo high ; for though a high tower 5, 6, is viewed by the eye at b, under a much greater angle than the object is at 1 , 2 ; yet the lofty mountain and the creeping mole hill equally vanifh, when they are fuppofed to be at S or V. The high hills which we fometimes view, at the ex tremities of a level country is no objection to the preced ing propofition ; for fuch hills are not at the boundaries of our fight at V S. They are in reality only as at m, n, and therefore obftructions to the extent of our fight ; for fup poſe m, n, a ſolid fubftance, the eye at b could not fee V; PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 371 but if m, n, were removed to V, it would become a point, which according to the firft definition of the preceding fection, is without magnitude, and therefore cannot be viſible ; for whatever is vifible, muſt have fomne proportion to magnitude ; but the points we make with a needle on paper are visible ; they are therefore furfaces of fome di menfions, and are not points ftrictly speaking ; for points are only ideas, not objects. The horizontal plane in con nection with the plane of the picture, is fhewn at fig. 2, by the lines HL, L R, R Y and Y H, but theſe cannot be confidered as the boundaries of the plane ; for the hori zon may be underſtood as a fection of the fphere, and is therefore a circle of extenfive radii. By thefe lines then are only marked fo much of the horizontal plane as is neceffary to defcribe the lines and points of perſpective, as weſhall afterwards fhew. འ Fourth. Of the vertical plane. In fig. 1, this plane is defcribed by the lines CO, O G, GI and IC, and is perpendicular to the eye, the ground plane, and the plane of the picture through whofe centre C, and the eye at I, it paffes, and may be produced to any height from the ground plane. The vertical plane is fo called becauſe it maybe confidered as a perpendicular fection of the pyramid of rays, repreſented by the lines drawn from each angle of the original cubes X M, of which I is the vertex. Fifth. Of the directing plane. This plane in fig. 2, is defcribed by the lines WZY R, and which is ſuppoſed to paſs through the eye, parallel to the plane of the picture, and to be perpendicular to the ground plane. This plane is chiefly uſed in the tranſpoſition of objects, wherein the eye is fuppofed to be fituated in a plane be tween the plane of the picture, and that on which any object is projected. It has however fome relation to the theory of perfpective, but is of no uſe in practice; there fore we now paſs on to d 372 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. SECTION IV . Ofthe Lines and Points produced by the Interfections of the foregoing Planes. Having now taken a view of the nature ofthe elemen tary planes, and of their dependence and connection with each other ; we proceed to the refult of theſe as they effect the theory of perſpective: Iftwo planes interfect one another, they do it in a right line JD, whence JD is the common fection produced by the interfection of the ground plane with the plane ofthe picture; therefore JD is called the ground line or inter fection of the picture, and the line H Lis the interfection ofthe plane ofthe horizon with that of the picture, and is therefore called the vanifhing line of that plane. The directing plane alſo produces two lines by its interſections, with the horizontal, and ground plane-That with the horizontal, as R Y, is termed the parallel of the eye, and that with the ground plane, as WZ, the directing line. If from the eye I a line be drawn perpendicular to the picture, the point C, where that line cuts it is the centre, and I is the point of fight, or place of the eye ; and the ſpace between I and C is the diſtance of the picture. Alſo if from I a line be drawn perpendicular to the parallel of the eye or the plane of the horizon, as I G, that line mea fures the height of the eye above the ground plane, and the point G is termed the point of ſtation, or the foot of the fpectator; and the line I G is called the eye's director, and GO being confidered as perpendicular to DJthe ground line, GO is the line of ſtation, and OCthe vertical line paffing through the centre of the vaniſhing line H L. Thus far, we are now prepared for finding the repre fentations of the original cubes X, M by producing a fection of the ſeveral rays which from them are directed to 373 the eye at I ; where the learner ſhould imagine his own eye to be; and let him alfo fuppofe the plane of the picture DJHLto be glaſs, then would he perceive the cubes X Mto have the appearance on the glafs, which they are repreſented to have on the perſpective plane : but the chief thing to be regarded is the fection of the rays, repreſented bylines, which indeed is the whole buſineſs of perfpective. It is therefore to be obferved that vifion, or fight, is per formed, or to ſpeak more philoſophically, the faculty of fight is acquired by reflected light from every part of a luminous body, which converges in a point in right line directions, and enter the eye at the pupil, which is but a very ſmall point, yet is capable of admitting numberless rays of light without confufion ; which being variouſly diſpoſed or refracted by the coats and humours of the eye, fall on the retina or bottom of the eye, and thus gives the ſenſation of objects, as has been demonſtrated by Sir Ifaac Newton and others. Now theſe are the rays deſcribed by right lines, I5, I6, &c in the figure, a ſection is required. PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. And for this purpoſe let the learner obferve, that the face of the cubes next the picture are fuppofed to be parallel to it, and confequently their fides are perpendicular to the picture ; wherefore produce the lines 1, 3, 4, 2, till they cut the ground line D J at the points 1 , 2. Now as all lines perpendicular to the picture vanish into its centre C, draw 1 , C, 2, C, which will cut the rays 3 I, 4 I, at a, d, draw a, b, d, c, parallel to the angles of the cubes 3, 5, 4,

• 6, which angles are perpendicular to the ground plane.

Now as lines perpendicular to the ground plane are paral lel to the picture, fuch lines can have no vaniſhing point, and therefore their repreſentations or images a, b, d, c, on the picture muſt be perpendicular to D J the ground line, and parallel to any of the perpendicular angles of the cubes ; draw then the line a, d, which is the repreſentation ofthe PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 374 bottom of the cube 2 , 4, for the line 2 , 4 is parallel to the plane of the picture and to the ground plane ; and therefore its image a, d, is parallel : fince all lines parallel to the picture , whatever pofition they have to the original or ground plane, can have no vaniſhing points ; and for this reafon, namely, that they cannot poffibly interfet the picture, as two lines parallel to each other can never meet in a point. Hence the angles of the cubes 5, 6-8, 7— 11 , 12—14, 13 , have their images b, c, e, o , p, parallel amongst themſelves, and to the interſection of the picture DJ, with the original plane A B, D J, N K, which we have hitherto termed the ground plane, in compliance with custom, which confiders all objects to be repreſented as they reft with their bafes upon the furface of the earth : but the theory of perſpective, when fully underſtood, is not fo contracted, fince it confiders planes, fimply as they bear a relation to each other, whether parallel, or inclined to the ground and to the picture. Hence in whatever po fition any plane cuts the picture, that plane is confidered an original plane, and the objects or figures upon ſuch planes are termed original objects, whofe repreſentations are to be deſcribed on the plane of the picture. This how ever maybe further illuftrated after, but now let the learner obferve that at b there is a change of pofition in the line, which is not continued perpendicular, but drawn to C the centre. The reaſon is plain, if he recollects that we have faid, all lines perpendicular to the plane of the picture have their vanishing point in the centre C but the angles 5,8—6, 7-11 , 14-12, 13, are all perpendicular, and therefore muſt be reprefented on the picture by b, C, c, C, which lines, cutting the feveral rays, iffaing from the original cubes X M, give the repreſentation of the furfaces X M; whenjoined by parallel lines at e, o, p. We have ſaid that all lines perpendicular to the picture vanish into C the centre ; for fince fuch lines are parallel to the vertical PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 375 plane, which paffes through the eye I, and the centre C, which is perpendicular to the picture, the vertical line OCs continued indefinitely, is the vanishingline of that plane, and C its centre, when the original line is perpendicular to the picture ; but if in an angle to it, as the fides b, c, a, d, of the inclined fquare P, fig. 2, the centre will be ſome where on the vertical line O Cs, either above or below C, according tothe angle ofthe inclined original lines . Hence s is the vaniſhing point of the original lines b, c, a, d ; for if from the paraliel of the eye Y R of the directing plane, another plane be imagined to paſs through the eye parallel to Y R, and continued till it cut the picture in an angle to Y RHLthehorizon, equal to that which the original plane P makes with the ground plane, then will b, I be the true vaniſhing line of the fides a, b, d, c of that plane, and O s ; the vertical line will be the vanishing line of the fides a, d, b, c, which are parallel to it, though they be inclined to the ground. Laftly, if from the eye I a line be drawn to s, the centre of the vaniſhing line h, ↳, perpendicular to h, 1, and to YR the parallel of the eye; that line I, s, is called the diſtance of that vanishing line. In producing a fection of the rays, from d, c, a, b, drawf, b, a, b, perpendicular to the picture, and draw the viſual i, s , f, s , and they will be interfected at t, u, v, z, join the points t, v, u, z by lines, and the reprefen tation of the plane P is found; for t, u is the image of a, d— v, z ofb, c- u, z of d, c, and t, v of a, b. SECTION V. OF THE VARIOUS POSITIONS OF LINES. Of Lines oblique to the Picture, fuppofed to be fituated in Planes, parallel to the Plane ofthe Horizon. Infig. 3, the ground plane and the picture remaining as before in fig. 2, together with the eye at I, and the centre C, produce the fides of the original fquare P, till it cut the ground line. D J at d, e, f, g, which are the points of 3761 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . interfection ofthe original lines 1 , 2, 3, 4 ; and as all lines oblique to the picture have their vanifhing points fome where out of its center C, they must be determined bythis general theorem ; namely, that the vaniſhing line of any original plane is that line where a plane paffing through the eye, parallel to the original plane, cuts the picture. Hence H L D G may be conceived to be a plane, paffing through the eye, perpendicular to the ground, or to the plane of the horizon, but inclined to the picture in an angle, equal to the fides of the original fquares O P. Now as IG is the interfection of this inclined plane with the directing plane, and D H parallei to I G is its interfection with the plane of the picture ; then is the line D H the vaniſhing line of the inclined plane G I HD, and H the vanishing point of the fides 4, 2, 3, 1 , of the ſquare P, and all lines parallel to theſe fides. The other fides 1 , 2, 3, 4 are in the fame degree oblique to the picture ; and con fequently the diagonals of theſe ſquares O P are perpendi cular to it, and will therefore vaniſh into C the centre of the picture, as we have before fhewn fuch lines will. Now as both the fides of the fquare are alike inclined, therefore the vanishing point L is equally diftant from the centre C with H. The truth of this theory may be perceived in a convincing light, by producing the fides of the fquare to DJthe ground line, as at d, e,f, g, from which draw viſuals to HL; which interfecting each other, give the reprefen tation of the original fquare P; draw then the ray R I, which cuts the vertical line O C at k, through which, for convenience, draw the vifuals m, L, n, H, and the image of O will be given on the picture. Now, confider the line 3, 1, d, H, d, and I, H, all in one plane, and fuppofe the eye of the fpectator at I , viewing through the tranf parent D, J, H, L, the original line 3 d, then muſt he fee d, H, the image of that line on the plane of the picture. In like manner he would view 4, k, the diagonal ofthe ſquares, to be the image of R 2, the diagonal of the original PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 377 fquares O, P; for the lines R I, 2 I , R 2, are in the fame plane of rays, and form a triangle, of which the vertical line o, c is a perpendicular fection, therefore q, k, is the image of R 2. Of Lines fuppofed to be fituated in Planes oblique both to the Ground Plane and the Picture. In fig. 4. The centre C, the diftance of the eye I, and the vanishing line H L, of any original plane, parallel to the horizon, being given ; to find the vaniſhing line of a plane inclined to the horizon and picture. And here it is to be obſerved, that the pofition of the elementary planes are tranfpofed, fo that the ground plane, horizon, and plane of the picture, are all in one ſurface ; as may more clearly be underſtood from fig. 6, whofe lines and figures correfpond with fig. 3, where theſe planes are in their natural fituation to each other. Therefore the tri angle HIL of fig. 6, in an upright poſition, is fimilar to HIL of fig 3, in the horizontal plane. And the tri angle d, 3, 8, on the ground plane, fig. 3, is the fame as d, 3, 3, on the ground line D J fig. 6. Alſo the vaniſh ing points H L, centre C, and diſtance of the picture 1, are alike in both figures ; together with the vertical line OCI. And though the three planes in fig. 6, are ſtretched into one, the repreſentations of both are evidently the fame in theory. Having premiſed thefe, we proceed to find a vaniſhing line as propoſed. Through C A fig. 4, draw a line, making with the horizon HL the angle, which the inclined plane makes with the ground plane. Draw the line CI i, perpen cular to C the centre, and through s draw I As parallel to HL, then may I A be confidered as the place of the eye. Throughs draw h L, parallel to I A C, then will Lbe the vaniſhing line, and s the centre of the inclined plane. Again, as a line fituated in fuch a plane is fup 378 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . poſed to incline alfo to the picture as the end a 7 of the table top, make HI equal to the angle, which a 7 originally makes with the picture ; and as the table top is rectangu lar, draw IL perpendicular to HI, then will L be the vanishing point of the fide a 6. The truth of this theory may be demonftrated as follows : fuppofe the triangle HIL capable of being turned perpendicular upon its baſe HL, then would I the place of the eye be to HL as I is to H L, fig. 2. The triangle CIA s being alfo turned perpendicular on C s, IAwill coincide with I. Imagine alfo the triangle of the inclined plane b, i, I L to be raiſed till i I is inclined to I A and coincided with it. Laftly, fup poſe the triangle HPh turned up on the perpendicular line HI b, till P come round to I, the place of the eye viewing the picture, then it is evident, by a little reflection, that h, Lis the true vanishing line of a plane paffing through the eye in an angle inclined to the parallel of the eye and tothe horizontal equal I As, for all the triangles will thus agree with each in their fides, and will unite in a point at the eye ; by which is reprefented refpectively the three planes of rays iffuing from the end, fide and top of the table to the eye, which planes of rays are each of them parallel to the end, fide or top refpectively. Thus the plane H Ph is parallel to the end 2 , 9, a 7 ; alfo h, i, ILto the top, and iIL, &c. to the fide 2, a, 6, 8. SECTION VI. THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PRECEDING THEORY REDUCED TO GENERAL PRACTICE. Problem 1. fig. 5. To reprefent a Geometrical Square, having two of its Sides parallel, and the other two perpendicular to the picture. Let X be the feat of the fquare on the ground plane, then DJ is confidered as the ground line, or interfection of the picture with the ground plane, and HCL parallel PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 379 to it the vanishing line of a plane parallel to the horizon. Draw the vertical line C I through the centre of the pic ture, and make I the place of the eye, or IC equal to the diſtance of the eye from the plane of the picture. Thus the paper, drawing board, or canvas, on which we work, must first be prepared, in order to the delineation of the moft fimple object in perfpective, as X. Continue its fides till they cut DJ at 1 , 2, from which draw visuals to C ; draw the rays 4, 9, to the eye I, which will cut the viſuals IC at a b ; from which points draw lines to the other viſual 2 C, and the repreſentation is completed. In this operation the learner fhould reflect a little on the analogy of this figure with fig. 2, that he may proceed on grounds well underſtood ; and for this purpoſe the fimilar lines in both are marked by the fame characters, that their connection and agreement may be perceived. The operation however may ftill be more fimplified ; for, as fhewn in fig. 8, any number, as a whole floor of fquares, in this poſition may be found by one diagonal line. Operation-Lay on DJ any number of equal parts, equal to the fide of the intended fquares, and draw lines to C the centre from each, then will they reprefent thoſe fides of the fquares which are originally perpendicular to the picture. Draw then a I, and obferve, that the place of the eye I, in fig. 5, is in this tranſpoſed to the vaniſh ing line HL at I ; then is IC ftill the diftance of the eye from the picture : and it beiug an axiom in perſpective, that the diagonal line of any ſquare, whofe fides are parallel and perpendicular to the picture, tends to the dif tance of the picture ; therefore draw a I, which will pass through the diagonal of 7 of the fquares, and if through thefe diagonal points, lines be drawn parallel to DJthe ground line, 49 fquares will thus be repreſented. Obfervations-The eye tranfpofed to I on HL, has 380 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . the fame effect on vifual lines, as when a plan X, fig. 5, is ufed ; and the eye keeps its natural pofition on the ver tical line CI. This is demonftrable by drawing a L, fig. 5, which paffing through the diagonal, gives the fame reprefentation as when rays were drawn from the feat of the original fquare X to the eye at I. Obferve further-That the parallel lines of the fquares in fig. 7, are reprefentatives of each other, according to their diftance from the eye and the picture. Hence the line 8, 7, is the reprefentation of the front line a 9, at a diſtance from the picture equal to a 9, the original fide of the floor of ſquares. In like manner the intermediate parallel lines, reprefent a 9, in proportion to their diftance ; and the divifions upon each are fimilar, and will bear the fame denomination to each other ; ſo that if thoſe ſpaces on a 9, be a foot, yard, or more, they are the fame on the reft. Hence each divifion becomes a fcale, by which to proportion objects perſpectively, according to their parallels thus, if I want to know the height of the object c, d, lay the height on the fcale f, c, and it will be 2 of thefe, whether feet or yards. And lastly, all objects on the fame parallel, whofe heights are originally the fame, have their reprefentations of equal height when ftanding on the fame parallel. The fame holds true in the length of objects which are equal originally, when they are parallel to the picture, and ftand on the fame parallel. Thefe remarks may contribute towards folving the doubts of fome enquirers into this art, who are inclined to believe that parallel objects, continued to any great length-fuch, for inftance, as the body of a church, on the front of the picture, in which there are a number of windows of equal diftances from each other-in which cafe the artift, un killed in the theory of perfpective, is apt to think that the windows moft remote from the eye, PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 381 ought to appear narrower than thofe in the centre. And I confess this matter to have been one of my own doubts, when a youngfter in this fcience ; not confidering the fimple geometrical axiom, that lines perfectly parallel, can never meet, and therefore in perſpective can have no va niſhing point: and if fo, by what rule can the fronts of houſes, or other large buildings, parallel to the picture be contracted ? There are only two pofitions of lines for buildings of every defcription, either they are parallel, or in fome degree oblique. If they are in the leaft degree oblique, their bafes, and all the parts on the front of a houſe, ſuch as the tops and bottoms of windows, will uniformly incline fomewhere to a point on the horizon ; but if parallel, thefe parts will be parallel on the picture. Hencein perspective it is a generally acknowledged pofition, that all lines originally parallel, fituated any where on a plain parallel to the picture, have their reprefentations parallel amongst themfelves and to the horizon. But in the contemplation of theſe fubjects the fancy is apt to rove in mazes of doubt, and therefore perhaps the reader has already placed himfelf, in imagination, on the front of a long range of regular buildings, or a long ſtreet, and ftill reafons with himfelf thus :-I cannot fee the windows at the extremities near fo wide as thofe oppofite to my eye, and if I look to my left, or to the right from the place where I ſtand, the buildings feem to be much lower according to their diſtance from the centre ; and if fo, how can fuch a range of buildings be reprefented with their tops and bottoms parallel ? This objection is very plau fible, and more fo than any other with which I am ac quainted; and as its difcuffion is of fome confequence to a true knowledge of the art, an anſwer to it will not be digreffive from our main ſubject. Let it therefore be obferved, that the eye has confiderably the advantage over the rules of perfpective, which can only admit of one point 382 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. of fight or centre to a picture, to which all the vifive rays converge. But we are to remember, that the eye has the power of turning every way, and to a vaft degree, as affifted by the circular motion of the head; fo that we naturally attempt to view a long ſtreet placed parallel to the eye at a ſhorter diftance than can be admitted in their perfpective ; but if we recede from this ſhort diſtance, and place ourſelves at one fomewhat more than the perpendi cular of an equilateral triangle, whoſe baſe is the length of the buildings ; and having thus fixed our ſtation, we muſt keep the eye ftedfaft to one point, perpendicular to the front, and take into our drawing no more of the ftreet than the eye can comprehend without turning either it or the head ; for if we want more of the ftreet, we muſt ſtill ſtep at a proportionate diftance : the eye thus fituated will view the street parallel, and its windows regular in width and ſpace, if they are fo originally ; and finally, its repreſen tation will be perfectly fimilar with the original ſtreet. Such views are however feldom taken, and are never con fidered as pictureſque. PROBLEM II. fig. 6, plate 1 . Of Squares oblique to the Picture. We have already confidered a part of this figure as to its analogy with fig. 3, and its connection with the theory of the art ; and fhall therefore proceed fimply to the prac tical method of drawing fquares in this fituation ; and without any regard to the plan P. The centre C, vaniſhing line V L, and the place of the eye I being given, draw I H parallel to the fide, or equal to the angle which two of the fides of the original fquare makes with the picture. Draw IL perpendicular to HI, then will HL be the vaniſhing points of the fides of the fquares. Butthat the repreſentation may be performed without a plan, make VL equal to the diftance of the vanishing line, I L or PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 383 HI; likewife V H the fame. And here it is to be ob ferved, that lines inclined to the picture are the fame way effected by interfections to V v, the diſtances of the va niſhing lines LJ, H B, as when they vanish into the centre C, and are interfected by the diftance of the eye I, tranfpofed at I, as in fig. 8. Thus far then the picture is prepared for objects inclined to it. Draw ƒ L, and make ƒ1 , equal to the diftance of the fquare P from the picture ; draw 1 , V, which will cut at q, make 1 , 2, equal to the fide of the original fquare, and draw to V, cutting at t ; which gives the fide of the fquare, by draw ing from q tto H, which cutting the diagonal tending to the centre C, lines may be drawn to HLthrough theſe points, and the reprefentation is completed. Thus we may proceed to any number of ſquares, by repeatedly lay ing on the ſpace 1 , 2, on the ground line each way. PROBLEM III. fig. 5. To reprefent a Squarefituated in a Plane inclined tothe Ground, having its Sides parallel to the Picture. The picture being prepared as to its diſtance, centre, and vaniſhing line, draw L s equal to the angle, which the inclined fquare makes with the ground, as fhewn by the elementary planes in fig. 2, by the line Is, parallel to P the original object. Draws, d, the diſtance of the inclined plane, parallel to the horizon, and draw the fides of the fquare to s, the vanifhing point in the inclined plane. Laftly, draw the diagonal b, d, which paffes through the fquare to the distance of the inclined plane d, and drawing fc, the fquare is completed. 384 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. PROBLEM IV. fig. 1, plate 2 . To reprefent a Paralellogram, whofe Sides are perpendicular to the Picture, and ends inclined to the Horizon or Ground Plane. The centre C, diftance of the eye I, horizon HL, and ground line DJ, being given, make b, a, g, the angle in which the parallelogram is inclined to the ground : and as the fides a, n, o, p, are perpendicular to the picture, the inclined vanishing line i C, paffes through the centre ofthe picture parallel to a, b, confequently C the common centre is the vanishing point of the fides o, p, a, n, perpendi cular to the picture ; and as p, n, o, a, are parallel to it, they can have no vanishing point. Therefore in whatever pofition the line o, a, b may be to the ground plane, ſo long as it keeps parallel to the picture ; any line originally per pendicular to it would vaniſh into C the centre. Draw then to C, the fides o, p, a, n, and make a, b equal to the fides of the parallelogram, and b 2 to its ends, and having turned C I the diftance to i, draw i, b, i, 2, interfecting at p, n, join p, n and the parallelogram will be reprefented as required. The fubject of this problem may be fully illuftrated by fig. 2, which preſents a water wheel, parallel to the picture, and therefore the ends of the wings 1 , 2, 3, &c. are per pendicular, and being fo they vanish into the centre C in every pofition, for all their vanishing lines 2, 6, 3, 7, 4, 8, país through the centre, parallel to the feveral wings of the wheel, as denoted by the correfpondent numerals ; from which lines being drawn to C, will indefinitely re prefent the ends of the wings. Now confider the width of the wings equal to 1 a, 8 g, 3 b, &c. and from I a, draw a line to 1 , on the vanishing line 1 , 5, cutting at 10, and from d, 5, cutting at 9 ; through 10, 9, drawa line, which will be parallel to 1 , 5, and give the apparent PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 385 width of the wing. Inthe fame way must b, c, d, e, f, &, be drawn to their refpective diftances on the vaniſhing lines, which will finish its reprefentation. Obfervation. -Suppoſe the wheel to be put in motion ; all the edges of the wings will move ſtrictly parallel to the picture, and confequently their ends are always per pendicular to it ; the inference of which is , that a plane may bein an infinite variety of inclinations to the ground plane, or that of the horizon, and yet pafs through the centre of the picture. PROBLEM V. fig. 2. The Reprefentation of a Square perpendicular to the Ground, and to the Picture. The horizon, diſtance ofthe eye, and ground line, re maining the fame as for the wheel, draw the viſual u, C, and let the fquare be equal u, r, fromthe picture ; draw r 2, from r to v lay on the original fide of the fquare ; and draw v 2, cutting at o, from which raiſe a perpen dicular. Make v, t equal v, r, and draw a line from t to 2, cutting at p' ; laftly, from C draw a line through , cutting at 4, which gives the fquare A, as required. If the fame fquare be moved round parallel to the picture, as at B, its repreſentation will be a fquare, for it may be confidered as a parallel fection of a pyramid, whofe baſe is a ſquare, t , v, s, B and its vertex is C, the centre of the picture. Thefe pofitions of ſquares, and all others, perpendicular to the ground, are fully illuftrated by PROBLEM VI. fig. 3. To repreſent a Wheel, with its Sides parallel to the Horizon and Ground Plane, having its Wings oblique to the Picture. This figure provides us with the reprefentation of parallelograms in every poſition, perpendicular to the Cc 386 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . ground ; and every angle of inclination to the picture, confidered at the fame time as perpendicular to the ground. And it is to be obferved, that when we can thus reprefent parallelograms, we, by the fame methods, are able to give the perfpective of any door, opened to any angle. It is for this reafon I have adopted the figure of a horizontal wheel, as moft convenient for this pur pofe. The diſtance of the eye I C, the centre C, and the vanishing line H L, together with the interfection GR, being given, draw the type at I, confifting of two geometrical fquares, interfecting each other at right angles, and infcribed within a circle, produce I, V, N, IV to H L, the vaniſhing line ; alſo I D, which biſects right angle, VN, I, V at D, and is therefore the vanishing point ofthe diagonal of any fquare, whofe fides to the pic ture are inclined in that angle. Now produce L4, AN, drawn to the boundaries of the plate. ID is perpendi cular to it, and IV bifects the right angle ; confequentlyV is the vanishing point ofthe diagonal of any fquare inclined tothe picture, in the angle DIAV. Thus we havevaniſh ing points fufficient for the two ſquares at I. Through D draw D 1 at pleaſure, or to a given point P, cutting the vertical line I C at P, which will be the centre of the wheel. Through P draw V P a, and make V n equal V I. Now, fince Vn is the diſtance of the vaniſhing line IV, draw ng through P, and having made 5, 6 equal to the radius of the wheel, draw 5 , cutting the line V P at a, then is a, P half the diameter. Draw a, d, AN, and through P draw V NP, cutting at d and b; and draw d D cutting at e ; join e and b, which lines tend to A N, and is therefore originally parallel to a, d, which vanishes in A N. Hence a, d, b, e is the repre ſentation of the fquare a, d, b, e, at the type I ; and, therefore, the parallelograms d, b, a, e, are diagonals of that fquare, and must be at right angles to each other " PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 387 Proceed now to find the points for the other interfecting fquare, as follows :-Through P draw 2 , 4, to AN, becauſe 2, 4, at I, is parallel to a, d, b, e. Through H draw Ha, which tends to v, the vaniſhing point on the left, at a diſtance from C, equal to C A N, which gives the point 1 , from which draw 1 , V, cutting at 4; and draw 4, V N, cutting at 3 ; through 3 draw 3, V, cutting at 2 ; hence we have the fquare 1 , 2, 3, 4, interfecting a, b, d, e, determining the length of each wing or ſpoke of the wheel, and producing 8 points, through which, a curve being drawn, a circle will, circumfcribe them, as fhewn by the dotted line in the figure. If, however, there be not room for v H in the drawing, obferve that I t paffes on the type though the centre of the arch 3, 2 ; therefore t is the vanishing point of a line t, p, paffing through p to r, biſecting the arch 3, e, a, I , at the point r. Laftly, draw V N, r, cutting at I, and at 2 the fame as before ; and if s , E be drawn, cutting at 9, which bifects the arch I d, in the fame way; and drawing V 91 we have 4 ; and from 4 to V N, we have 3 ; by which means the 8 points may be found without recourfe to either of the very diftant vaniſhing points. This problem is operous, but it will fully repay the learner for his patience when he can mafter it ; for he muft obferve its general utility, in teaching, not only the repreſentation of a wheel parallel to the horizon, but alfo upright planes, in any direction, for doors ; a circle and an octagon in perſpective, however inclined their diameters may be to the picture. SECTION VII. Öf the Application of the preceding Practice to the Repre Jentation ofPieces of Furniture. Having, in the preceding ſection, treated of planes in all poffible pofitions to the picture, the learner is effentially 388 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . prepared for the repreſentation of ſolid figures of any deſcription ; but as this treatife is particularly defigned for cabinet-makers and upholsterers, we proceed to ' every needful variety in furniture. Of Fig. 1, plate 2. The Repreſentation of a Reading or Drawing Table, having its Top raiſed to an Angle, b, a, g, to the Horizon, and its Sides perpendicular to the Picture. The top of this table is deſcribed in prob. 4 of the pre ceding fection, confidered fimply as a parallelogram in clined to the horizon, but perpendicular to the picture, and therefore we ſhall only touch on the frame, whoſe end is parallel and fide perpendicular to the picture. But the learner fhould obferve, that, in reprefenting furniture, he fhould always make a ſcale of feet and inches ; by which is to be proportioned the height of the eye above the ground, termed the horizon, and alſo every part of the piece intended to be delineated. To the horizon may be affigned in general 5 feet 6 inches, or 5 feet, as furniture is in general viewed from a natural height. The distance of the eye from the picture, may commonly be governed by the diſtance from C to G, on GR, the ground line, which I find to anſwer with fewer exceptions in drawing furniture than any other rule, though in this, and other figures, I have paid no regard to it, as this would be quite inconvenient, for want of room on the plates. Let then q I be the width, and 1,2 the length of the table ; draw q1 , and the other lines 詈 for the feet, to C, and from 2 draw to I, cutting at 3, which gives the length ; and from 3 draw parallel, for the other leg, which in this example is not ſeen. From each of theſe points raiſe perpendiculars, and draw DJ PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 389 b parallel to G R, for the height of the table ; and from r, a, draw the viſuals r C, a C, meeting at n. Thehorſe may be drawn in any angle to the top, it being parallel to the picture has no vaniſhing point, and conſequently its angle is on the picture, the fame as the original. For the top, fee Prob. 4. In tapering fquare legs in any table, fig. A fhews the method at large ; 1 , 2 is the fquare of the leg, and 3, 4, reduces it to half the fize, to which it is to be tapered at the bottom ; draw 1 , 2, 3, 4 to C the centre, and from 2 draw to d the diftance, which gives the diagonal of the ſquare of the foot ; draw the contrary diagona. , cutting at a, b, and the point c, was cut by the other line to d, then are the points a, c, b, the proper taper ing points, to which, lines from the full fquare of the legs muſt be drawn, as at 5, 6, fig. 1 . Of Fig. 4, plate 2. The Repreſentation of a Stand, or RoundTable, on a Pillar, and three Claws, two of which are parallel and one perpendicular to the Picture. The diſtance, C I, being given, draw at I the tri angle 1 I, 2, and produce its fides to V O V, which will be the vaniſhing points of the triangle, in which the claws may be infcribed, therefore draw a V, à V O. Make G a equal to the fide of the given triangle, and draw G V cutting at d ; draw d, b, par allel to Ga, which will give the triangle ; to find the centre of which, draw Ca, and from G draw to b, and their interfection will be the centre at l. The truth of this is demonftrable by obſerving, that the diagonal of the two triangles at I , are per pendicular or at right angles to each other, and a

390 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 1 line bifecting any fide, and perpendicular to it, cuts the diagonal in the centre of either triangle : Gb is, therefore, perpendicular to a, d, cutting Ca, the bifec tion in e; from which raiſe a perpendicular for the pillar. In this example, the table top is above the horizon, ſo that the eye is fuppofed to be between it and the claws ; but this makes no difference in the rules for drawing it. Let a 7 be drawn perpendicular to GR, the ground line, and equal to the height of the ftand ; and draw 4, 5, parallel to the ground, and equal to the diameter of the top, which is a circle originally ; draw lines from 4, 7, 5 to C, and make C D equal IC, the diftance of the eye. From 4 draw to D, cutting 5 C at 9 ; draw 9, 8, which will give a fquare to contain the circle ; draw 5, 8, the contrary diagonal, which gives the centre, through which draw 10, 12 ; make 6, 5 equal two-fevenths of the femi-diameter, and draw 6 to C, which will cut the diagonals in the points through which the circle is to paſs ; do the fame on the other fide, or draw parallel lines to the oppofite angles from o, p, and there will be 8 points through which the curve is to paſs, as fhewn by the points on the under fide ofthe top. Make a, r equal to the heighth of the claws, and draw to C, cutting the pillar on the top of the claws. For the top of the toes at t, draw from t to V, V O, as at s and n ; and for every other part, the eye mufl be the guide, governed by a well formed judgment in the theory of perſpective. 1 Of Fig. 5, plate 2, Ofan Octagon Top Table, with four Claws, having their Toes parallel and perpendicular to the Picture. To fhorten the defcription, we fhall fuppofe the learner acquainted with the vanishing line, ground line, PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 391 and diſtance of the picture ; and therefore proceed to repreſent a ſquare at a, 4, b, d, equal to the fize of the top, and the fame for the top. Draw the perpendicular line 1, 2, half the diameter of the top, and defcribe the arch 1 , 3 ; from 2 draw 2, 4, the diagonal, and make 4, 6 equal 3 , 4 ; and from O drawto A6 the dif tance, which will cut the diagonal in the place of the toes, ifthey are confidered as projecting from the pillar, equal to the edge of the table, as in this cafe ; how the other toes are found is obvious, by the dotted lines traced to each. For the octagon at the top, nothing more is requifite than drawing from 5, 6, 8, 7, 3, 10, perpendicular lines to the correfpondent numerals at the top, and joining them with lines ; and for the height of the claws, draw ga and o a for thetoes. Of Fig. 6, plate 2. The Repreſentation of an Octagon Table, with Drawers, having all its Sides oblique to the Picture, and refting on Four Claws. In the preceding example, the fides of the octagon top are, two of them, parallel, two perpendicular, and four of them oblique to the picture, which circumſtance makes it much more convenient and eafy for drawing : but in this, every fide being inclined to the picture, it requires a confiderable extent for two of the vaniſhing points, as at V N, by fig. 7, and V near the bed. Theſe two points are for the front fides, and the two behind, which are parallel to them. The type at I, fhews how the vaniſhing points for each fide are found. Thus the line I a is parallel e, c, and I b to d, e, the fronts of the table, and are therefore produced till they cut the vanifhing line, which is the fame as for the fire fereen and bed, continued the whole length of the plate. 392 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. The lines Ik, I h are parallel reſpectively to the fides b, c, a, d, and are therefore produced till they cut at d and D, the vanishing points of the fides, a, d, b, c. Now, as the other fides of the table are reſpectively parallel to thoſe four feen in front, they have the ſame vaniſhing points ; and as every angle of the top touch the diagonals and diameters of a fquare, let 1 , 2, 3, 4 be the fquare of the top, and G R BLthe fame ſquare on the ground plane, and draw the diagonals of each to V NO, V O, and their interfections find the centre and diameter 5, 6 M T of the fquares. Proceed now to draw the lines to each vaniſhing point, and their interfections with thefe will form the fides of the top, as is obvious from the plate. The border round the top is found by lay ing its original width on the lines 1 , 2, at 7, cutting 5, 6. From d, draw a line forward, cutting the diagonal 1, 3 ; then from V N cut the perpendicular, paffing through the centre C, which method is to be continued round all the fides . The depth of the rail and drawers are laid on the perpendicular 1 G at e, and e, fis to be drawnto V O, the vanishing point of the diagonals ; and fromf begin by a line from V N, continued round the four ap parent fides to the fame points as were employed for the top, and ſo of every other line which are parallel to the fides of the top. How the claws are to be managed, with refpect to their projection, is by laying on the ground line G R, R a, equal to the ſaid projection, that is of half the ſquare G R on the diagonal line, which is as I o is to In on the type, for it ſhould be obſerved, that every line in perfpective, according to their poſition to each other, bears the fame ratio as their originals in geometry. This may be underfood by comparing the type I, of the original geometrical plan, with its per pective on the ground ; for e, m, on the type, is fimilar to a M in perſpective, and I o at the type is fo to R a on • PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 393 the ground ; and becauſe I d is parallel to e m, V No is the vaniſhing point of the line a n in the perſpective. Hence it appears that the claws project from the pillar , or rather centre of it, more than R a, half the diameter ofthe table, in as much as I l, on the type, is more than I o, or as the diagonal is to the fide of a ſquare. Of Fig. 7. The Reprefentation ofa Tripod Work Table Fire Screen, oblique to the Picture. Draw C I, the centre and diftance of the picture, and at I draw the triangle 1 , 2, 3 in an inclination II to IC, the vertical line, as may be aſſumed or propoſed. The vaniſh ing line I, V N a is parallel to the fide 1 , 3, I, v, n, e, to 1 , 2, and I v, near the bed, to A B in the perfpective plan, that is originally fo ; II is the perpendicular of the triangle, and is produced to Di. I, v i, is produced per pendicular to V N a, I, confequently v i, is the vaniſhing point of a line A n perpendicular to BD. Let G R bethe ground line ; draw then A D, v n o, A B v, and make Am equal to the fides of the original triangle P. And as v, p is equal I v, it is the diſtance of that vanishing line, therefore draw in p, m cutting at B ; from B draw to V N a, cutting at D; then is the triangle ABD the reprefenta tion of Am on the plane P. To find the centre for the pillar, divide A m at a, and from a draw to P cutting at b, and from bto Oi, draw A to v, i, and s will be the centre. Make / equal to the fide of the block to which the top is hinged, and draw theſe to p, for the ſame reaſon as m was ; and from xy draw to Oi, cutting at tn for Oi; vi is equal I vi, and is therefore the distance of the vanishing line I v i. Draw through tn lines to V N a. From the vaniſhing point d of the diagonal of a ſquare, whoſe fides are Ivi, IV Na, draw through s, cutting in fand d, which give the ichnography of the block. Thus are we prepared 0 394 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . fordrawingthe upper part ofthe fcreen-place therefore the height ofthe block at 4, and draw to v i, and the length of the fcreen face at 5 , 6, equal on each fide 4. From d, the diagonal vaniſhing point, draw through the line 4, vi ; and from d on the ichnography of the block, raife a perpendi cular cutting at 7 , and from 7 draw to V N a, vi; then frome andƒcut thefe lines, and the block will be found. From n, on the ichnography, raife a perpendicular to 8, and from 5, 6 draw to vi, which gives the face of the fcreen in its apparent height. For the width, lay on AR, nzequal to half of it, from which direct lines to Qcut ting at nk, and from k raiſe a perpendicular to 9 ; and how the other half of the fcreen, and the breaks at the angles are obtained is clear from the numerals 10, 12, with out further tediouſneſs in defcription. The drawing ofthe pillar and claws muft be learned from experience and ob fervation, for it would be intolerably prolix to enter into the minutia of thefe ; befides the whole would be in confu fion from the multiplicity of lines and figures, that would be requifite to a particular detail of all the parts. To make perſpective pleafant and eafy, the ftudent fhould learn to reafon from the analogy of parts ; fo that in know. ing how to reprefent the moft confpicuous parts of objects, he may eaſily defcend to thoſe more remote, or more minute, according to their poſitions and relation to each other. Of Fig. 8. plate 2. The Reprefentation ofa Four-poſt Bed, oblique to the Picture. In this example one would think obfervation alone would be fufficient after what hath paffed upon the fubject ; but as fome of myreaders, who follow the upholſtery branch, may be defirous to come as fpeedily as poffible to the knowledge of fuch a drawing, I fhall proceed, as before, to explain the lines ; and, it is here to be obſerved, that every thing is drawn to a ſcale of feet, as marked 1 , 2, 3, &c. PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 395 both for the length, width, and height of the bed, together with the height of the horizontal line, which is 5 feet above GR, the ground line ; and the diftance of the eye IC is rather more than from Cto R, agreeably to what we have before noticed under fig. 1 , in the beginning of this fection. IC, being then the diftance of the eye from the picture ; draw Iv, making an angle, equal to that which the end of the bed makes with the picture ; and from I draw I, V N perpendicular to I v, then are V‹ N, ≈ the vanishing points of the fides and ends of the bed re fpectively. Make v d equal I v, then is vd the distance of the vanishing line tranfpoſed to the horizontal line, by which to define the repreſentation ofany original line. Thus drawing Bv for the end ofthe bed, from 5 feet draw to d cutting the reprefentation of the end of the bed B v in o, which is faid to define that line, becauſe B a reprefents 5 feet ; but as we want the width to be a foot more, and as there is not ſpace beyond 5 to lay on that foot, to make it 6 feet, drawo b parallel to the ſcale line, and draw I v, cut ting at b, from b draw to d, and becauſe o b is the repre ſentation of one foot on that parallel, the bed end will be thus made equal to 6 feet. From 7 draw to i, which will give the length of the bed, becauſe V N, i is the diſtance of the vanishing line V N, I. Make e, f, g on the perpen dicular fcale line G g equal to the feveral heights of the parts of the bed, and draw from theſe to i, interfecting the feveral lines to V N, which being drawn forward as to k B, give the repreſentations oftheſe. Or theſe heights may be placed on Bk and drawn to V N; but to keep clear of the bed pillar, at B we have thought it preferable to uſe the other line at Gg, as the effect is perfectly the fame. Ob ferve all the lines on g, h, k, at the top of the bed, tend to i, by which every part on the viſual k V N is meaſured or defined ; and in like manner may any other part on the end of the bed, as at r, the centre, be defined by drawing 396 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . to d, for k r is equal to half the end of the bed. Laftly, obſerve that every line at the head end of the bed, which is parallel to the foot end, vanifh, or tend to v, and fo do all thoſe parallel to the fides, or on the fides, tend to VN. After fuch remarks I preſume every particular of the whole bed will be eaſily underſtood. Fig. 8. plate 2. Ofthe Repreſentation of a Gentleman's Shaving Table, having its Front parallel to the Picture. The learner may here obſerve that the poſition of the glafs occafions that intricacy which appears in the lines of this figure, as I have been particular in fhewing how the ends of the glafs vaniſh. It is true the cupboard door is opened oblique, and is the occafion of the vanishing points VV, for VI is drawn to the diſtance I, and is fuppofed to be parallel to the fide of the door originally confidered, and I V is perpendicular to V I, and is parallel to the edge of the door. Make V, d, V equal V I, then will d, V be the diſtance of the va niſhing line V I. Bifect the angle V IV at o, and produce I o to n, then n will be the vanishing point ofthe diagonals of any fquare inclined to the picture in that angle. From Vproduce the top and bottom of the door, and from V draw through 4, and from the diagonal point n draw through the inner edge of the door, cutting at 5. Laftly, through 5 draw 5, 6, which determines the width of the door, which, in this fituation, appears too wide, becauſe it is on this fide of the picture next the eye, but the rule is the fame. The angle of the glaſs is at a b, and e c is the original height of the frame in which it is hung by a centre. Make d S parallel to ab, which gives S for the vanishing point of the inclined plane. Draw SD parallel to d C, and make S D equal Sd, and D will be the diſtance of that plane. Weproceed now to find the vaniſhing points for PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 397 the ends ofthe glafs, by making CE equal to the diſtance IC. Draw SE and make E V N perpendicular to S E, then will VN be the vanishing point of both ends of the glafs, for they are parallel to each other. Draw from the centre of the glaſs a b to 3, and from 3 to C, which will cut the centre of the frame, ſuppoſed to be already drawn. Then from 3 draw through that centre, and draw a paral lel line to the oppofite fide of the frame, through which another line from S must be drawn for the other fide of the glafs. Now the apparent length of the glaſs may be determined two ways, either by drawing to C from 4 and 2, or bytaking na and a b, and laying from Pto 7, and drawing to do, as the figure itſelf ſhews, the length of the glaſs being determined either way, draw the ends to VN, to which point they tend. Concerning the parallel and perpendicular parts of this piece of furniture, we judge it needleſs to ſay anything to thoſe who have gone through the preceding parts. OfFig. 9, plate 1. The Reprefentation of a Chair, oblique to the Picture. The diftance I C, vanishing line V VN, and ground line 4, 3, 2, 5 being given, draw the plan P of the chair feat, and produce the fides to the ground line. Obferve the front ofthe chair P, is parallel to V I, andthe fide 9, 10 is the fame to V I, and the oppofite fide to IV N, and CI to the line paffing perpendicular through the centre of the feat; fo that we have four vaniſhing points out of the Andthe learner fhould further notice, that, as we have drawn from a plan produced ' till its fides interfect the picture, no ufe is made of the diftances of the feveral vaniſhing lines, as has been done in the foregoing exam ples. Draw then the feveral lines as fhewn at 4, 3, I, 2, 5, and their interfections will find the place ofthe feet. Raife a perpendicular at 2, 8, and from 8 the height ofthe centre.

398 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . feat draw to V, and downwards from 8 place the depth of the rail, or ſtuffing, and draw to the reſpective vaniſh ing points. The height of the back is laid on from 8 on the perpendicular, and drawn to Vuntil it cut a correl pondent perpendicular, touching the angle of the chair as at n, from whence a line is drawn to V N, giving the height of the back. For the centre of the back, draw from 3, to 6, and from m, raiſe a perpendicular, and let it paſs over the feat to o, the vanishing point of that line ; which will give the centre of the balluſter, or back of the chair. How the other fmall parts are to be drawn, muſt be left to the judgment of the practitioner, as it is impoffible to apply more minute rules to fuch ſmall exam ples. Of Fig. 10, plate 1 . Ofa Step Ladder oblique to the Picture, andto the Plane ofthe Horizon. This example is given for the exerciſe of the learner, that he may now try his ſkill, in vanishing points, lines, and planes. The whole figure may be conceived, as fituated in three original planes, of different pofitions to each other: thus, the foot of the ſteps, are feated in a plane parellel to the horizon, and, therefore, GR is drawn for the interfection of that original plane with the picture ; and H L being drawn parallel to it, and at a fpace above G R, equal the height of the eye, it is the vaniſhing line ofthe faid original plane, and every other plane parallel to it ; as the fteps, every one of which, though they feem not to be fo to the eye of the unfkilful obferver, are in planes originally parallel to each other, and to the horizon. Hence all the tops, and underfides ofthe fteps, vaniſh into V, near H: to which point they may all from the bottom, to the top, be drawn. Second-The fides of the fteps whofe elevation is P, PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 399 are in planes parallel to each other ; perpendicular to the ground plane, but oblique to the picture : V, C, I , is the angle of their obliquity. Hence a line paffing through V Va, parallel to the vertical line C I, or, which is the fame thing, perpendicular to the ground, is the vaniſhing line of that inclined plane ; therefore, ef, from the bottom of theſe fides are drawn to V, becauſe the fides of the ladder are repreſented by thefe as being in that inclined plane, and parallel to each other : 4, the top, is equal to e f the bottom and therefore vaniſh to V a. Third-The front edges of the fteps, and of the fides, are in a plane oblique both to the ground and picture. The angle it makes with the picture, is, OV, CI ; hence, ef is drawn to O V, and alfo all the fronts of the ſteps, for they are all parallel to each other. The inclination which this original plane makes with the ground, is the line a b at P, as it bears to the ground line G R; hence from O V, a line is drawn parallel to a b on P, cutting the vanishing line V Va at Va, and therefore V a is the true vanishing point of the front and back edges of the fides of the fteps, for every angle of the fides of the ladder are parallel to each other. We proceed now to find the centre S, and distance S I, of the vanishing line VaVO. Through C, draw Ci parallel to Va S, and make C i equal CI, and draw C S, perpendi cular to the vanishing line Va; OV, then is S its centre, and C S continued to I, perpendicular to S, and i S be ing turned to II, II willbe the diftance of the eye on that plane, and V a I 1 , the distance of the vanishing line. Va, OV of that plane ; therefore make V a, do equal Va II ; and from every step on P, draw lines to do, cutting feverally on the line bk, from which draw every front edge of the fteps to O. V. The reft being fo obvious from, the general theory of the whole thus 400 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. illuftrated, must be understood, and therefore I shall not clog the figure with any more letters, nor render the detail further tedious, by a more minute confideration. Plate 3. Ofthe Reprefentation of the Ionic and Corinthian Capitals, having their Faces parallel to the Picture. The Compofite is omitted, it being only the Ionic and Corinthian joined together. And as the learner is fuppofed to have gone regularly through the preceding leffons, it will be quite unneceffary to give a detail of every line, as this would greatly in jure the effect ofthe capitals, by attaching a great number of letters to them. I fhall therefore only make fome ge neral references to them, and leave the particulars to the reader's own obfervations, by inſpecting the plate. And first I would remark, that the capitals thus repre fented, greatly affift the workman in attaining to the knowledge of the diftinct parts, and to the whole ofthe capitals ; and it is prefumed that architecture in general would be better understood, if it was thus delineated. To draw the plan of each capital, is effentially requifite to an accurate reprefentation of them. And let thelearner begin with the Ionic, as it is by much the eafieft ofthe two. In drawing the plan, make a ſcale of minutes, which fhould be as large as can be difpenfed with ; then opening the compaffes to 25 of thefe, defcribe a circle and divide it into four quarters, at one of which defcribe the volute, as in this example-by any of the methods taught in the laft fection of geometrical drawing. By this elevation, the plan of the volutes will be moſt cor rectly afcertained, and the whole capital . And obferve, that on the plan the volutes are five minutes in width, and four are taken for their concavity, which is drawn PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 401 from the fummit of an equilateral triangle as at s. Every other part of the plan must be obvious from infpection ; and therefore, proceed to fhew it in perſpective ; and as the abacus of the capital is a perfect ſquare, its angles will fall on each diagonal of the fquare, which includes the the ovalo, or largeſt circle on the plan. From , p, q, on the right hand diagonal of the plan, it is apparent how the feveral circles are found, to any that know any thing of perfpective, and it is vain for any other to attempt to draw theſe capitals, which are even troubleſome to thoſe well versed in the ſubject : and it ſhould alſo be remark ed, that the knowlege of perſpective alone, will not be fufficient, except we have previously drawn the orders geometrically. The ichnography of the capital being thus found, draw lines from r, t, to the height ofthe capi tal at f, e, from which find a perfpective fquare, agree ing with that the plan. Draw e, 1, perpendicular on which to lay on the height of the volute, and the abacus above, which must be taken from the profile of the Ionic column, plate 32 ; ſo alſo muſt every part of the Corin thian plan and capital be adjuſted from the meaſurement of the profile of that order, in plate 33. The Ionic vo lute on the plan being parallel to the picture, or to G R, the repreſentation is to be drawn by the fame centres, and method used in drawing them geometrically. The breadth of the horn ofthe volute, is laid on at ↳, k, and from k, draw a line to o, cutting at m. The parts a, b, c, d, are for the projection of the ovalo, aftragal, and hol low, at each of which there muſt be fquares repreſented, and their diagonals pointed from the circles on the ich nography, as from 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The fluting are drawn as from w, v, to the circle 1 , 2, 3 , &c. and raiſed perpendicular from the feveral points on that circle, as at 9, 10. The carved eggs and darts on the echinus, are D d 402 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. reſpectively over each flute and fillet, and are found in the fame way on the largeſt circle. Ofthe Repreſentation of the Corinthian Capital, having its Faces parallel and perpendicular to the Picture. The halfplan ofthis capital muſt be drawn in the follow ing manner:-After making the fcale of minutes as before, take twenty-five of theſe, and defcribe the fhaft ofthe column, and divide it into four equal parts, and draw the radii ; and on theſe deſcribe the plan of the leaves. The first row of which project ſeven minutes, and the fecond fix more, in all thirteen, as marked on the plate. Then take fixty minutes, and place it from its centre, on the diagonal line 60 at a, and take two minutes and a half, and on a deſcribe the circle ; and through a draw b, c perpendicular to the diagonal line, which gives the width of the horn of the volute. Now, as the face ofthe abacus is concave on every fide, find the centre of the curve by taking c, e and placing it from bto O on the line Od; the centre O will defcribe it, which is fo drawn on every fide. From the angular point P, deſcribe the projection of the echinus and hollow, which may be equally divided, but it is ufual to give a little more to the echinus or ovalo. Now proceed to find the perfpective of the plan as in the other capital, and from 7, 8, reprefent a fquare, which includes the whole of the capital. Alo, at A B C do the fame for the two rows of leaves, the projections of which are found by their diagonals and diameters, the fame as in the reprefentation of any circle ; and the turn-over of thefe leaves is 5 minutes deep ; which, to keep their points correct, will require another circle, as fhewn by the dotted lines at 9, 10. The horn of the abacus vanishes into the distance, becauſe it is the diagonal of a fquare, as is feen onthe plan ; and therefore take the fide of the fquare p, e, at the plan, and layto 7, I, on the top of the capital, and from 1 draw PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 403 to the distance on the left, which, in this example, ex ceeds the bounds of its plate. From 7 draw to the centre C, and the interfection will give the horn, the centre of which will be on the diagonal of the higheſt ſquare ; from which draw to the other diagonal, for the right hand horn. For the curve of the abacus, draw perpendicular lines, as at 2, 3, 4, 5, on the plan ; from which draw to 2, 3, 4, 5, at the top of the capital ; and from 2, 3, 4, 5, draw to C, the centre. Laftly, take g 2, and fet it from 2 tok, at the top, and draw from k to the diſtance D, and fo from /, n, o, which will give four points, through which the path of the curve muſt be directed ; and for the reft, the learner muft exerciſe his own genius, from what he difcerns on the plate, rather than be wearied out with the tediouſneſs of repeated references. I fhall, however, mention that the leaves find their place on the vaſe of the capital, by drawing them from the plan, in the fame man ner asthe flutes are done. SECTION XII. Of the complete Picture, in which isfhewn the Connection of various Vanishing Points, with the Diſtance, and Centre of the Picture, together with the Doctrine of Shadows combined therewith, as exhibited in Plate 4 of Perspective. To this plate I had an eye at the beginning of this work, as expreffed in the title ; but I did not think of having three more as large ; but on arriving at the ſubject of perſpective, being led more particularly to confider the uſefulneſs of it to young perfons, and others mate .rially concerned in drawing, I was defirous of doing the ſubject more juſtice, by adopting thefe large folio plates, which give an opportunity ofſhewing the vaniſhing points of objects obliquely fituated, without which the 404 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. . fubject cannot be treated of in a fatisfactory manner : and firſt, Of the linear part of the picture, which contains moft of the difficulties that can occur in one picture, and which in this occafions feven different vanishing points ; one of which is out of the picture, or the termination of the line, called the fide of the oblique chair. But the learner fhould obferve, however numerous the vaniſhing points may be in one picture, there is but one centre and one diſtance ; thefe two, as he will prefently fee, govern all the other points and lines, whether relative to the objects themſelves or to their fhadows. Therefore let him obferve, that C is the centre of this picture, and I on the vertical line, paffing through the centre, is the place of the eye, or from C to I is the diftance of the eye from the picture. The horizontal line paffes through C, pa rallel to the ground line G R. And now we fhall pro ceed with the chair on the right fide, which has its front parallel to the picture ; but the fides of it being oblique to the front and to each othe , in an equal degree, they have their vanishing points at P and at P v, at equal distances from the centre C. On G R, it ſhould be obſerved once for all, that all original lengths and breadths must be laid on, and the heights on perpendicular lines to G R. There fore confider 1, 2, the length of the front, which, by the fcale, is twenty-three inches ; which fcale is for every piece of furniture in this picture. Make 2, 3 the heighth • of the feat, and 3, 4 that of the back above the feat. From 4 draw to C, cutting at 7 ; from which, draw to P, the vanishing point of the fide rail, and a perpendicular at & gives the height of the back. How this perpendicular at 8 is found, may eaſily be feen , by obferving the lines 5, 6, which tend to V, the diftance, and give the width • of the feat, by cutting a viſual from 1 to C. For any thing more, the learner, who has gone through plate 2, PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 405 will find it unneceffary to fay any thing more ; and in all the other pieces, I proceed on this fuppofition, otherwise they would be fo loaded with figures and letters, as to ſpoil the effect of the picture, and their defcription would be rendered intolerably tedious : for it must be apparent to the fenfible reader, that my deſign in this plate is to give aview of the nature of the entire picture, and not to teach the minutias of each piece of furniture, which he is to learn from the preceding plates. Under this view, we will proceed to the Lady's Dreffing Cheft , which, as the chair front, is parallel to the picture ; confequently a, c, d₂ b, the length of the front, tend to C the centre, and the diſtance is V. The upper drawer projects out, fo as to touch the picture, which any thing is faid to do when it comes into a line drawn perpendicular from the ground line, as the dotted line from.c, on which is laid the heights of the drawers, and the partition edges fignified by theſe points or dots ; for, obferve the middle drawer does not come into , but to k, about half as far out. The The pro jection then of the dreffing drawer is better than a foot, and is laid from a to 2, and a line drawn at V, cutting at f, which gives the line for the front ; and g is for the depth of the cove, cutting at b. The whole width of this dreffing cheft * is laid from 2 to 1. The next thing worthy# of notice, is the dreffing glaſs, raiſed to an angle equal to that which VS makes, with the horizontal line ; therefore S is the centre of this inclined plane, and S D the vanishing line ; becauſe the ends of the glass are parallel to the picture and to the horizon, Make S D equal S V, then is SD the diftance of the vanishing iine SD, ofthe fides of the glafs. From the neareſt angle of the glafs, draw the line m, parallel to SD, and let the point mbe confidered as the length of the glafs, From m draw toD, which cuts the viſual tending to S at n, and gives its apparent length ; or, if the line a, p, be drawn parallel to 406 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . S V, through the angle of the glaſs, make o equal in length to m ; and from draw to V, and it will have the fame effect. So that let this be remembered, that when it is inconvenient to find D, V will do equally as well, when the original meaſurement is laid on a line whofe inter ſection with the picture is parallel to the original inclined plane. Of the Lady's Writing Table and Book Cafe. The ends of this table are oblique to the picture in an angle equal to IL, therefore L is the vanishing point of every line on the ends parallel to the plane of the horizon," and therefore I need not to mark any of theſe ; for they are all confidered as parallel to it which tend to L, as a L is ever perpendicular to the ground. The front and back of the table vaniſh into V N, becauſe from the place of the eye I, V NI is perpendicular to IL. And here alfo obferve that the drawer, the top and bottom ofthe reading deſk, the book-cafe fhelves, top and bottom, all vaniſh or tend to V N, as the line b. From b to g is the height of the table, and from`g to h the height of the middle ſhelf of the book-cafe ; from b draw to , and from Ito L, to find k. We now confider the reading or writing flap, which refts againſt the top of the table in an angle equal to V N, VH, wherefore V HL is the vaniſhing line of the ends of the deſk, for they are parallel to the ends of the table, though oblique to the top of it, and being thus oblique the ends tend to V H, perpendicular over L, becauſe L is the vaniſhing point of the ends of the table. But the fides of the deſk are parallel to the horizon, and therefore vaniſh to VN. Next proceed to find the centre of the vaniſhing line V N, V H, inclined to the horizon. From C the com mon centre of the picture, draw CCa perpendicular to VN, V H, and continue it far enough to receive the dif PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 407 tance ofthe vanishing line Ca i, which is here out of the picture, but may be underſtood by comparing fig. 4, plate I, which is the fame cafe, only the angle of inclination is to the other hand. Draw Ci parallel to V N, V H and from i draw i C, a, which, being laid on from Ca, gives the line VNO, and thus the diſtance D 4 of the vaniſh ing line V N, V H is found, as the reader will eafily fee by fig. 4, plate 1. Draw from the neareſt angle of the deſk P, parallel to V N, V H, and p 4, being the original fide of the defk, draw to D 4. Laftly, obferve a at C is the vaniſhing point of the diagonal of any ſquare whoſe fides vaniſh into V N, V H, as we have formerly explained ; and as the defk is fquare, a line from q paffes through the op pofite angle to aby C. Of the Chair on the left, whofe Front and Sides are oblique to the Picture. - Firft, obferve, that ifthe fides were ſquare with the front, they would vaniſh in V, becauſe the front vaniſhes in V I, for VI, I is perpendicular to IV. But we fuppofe the fides to bevel from the front, as much as the lines I 3, I 2 do to II, produce I 3 till it cut at V E, and in like manner produce I 2, which exceeds the plate, as noted by the writing ; but where it terminates on the horizontal line, that is the vaniſhing point of the oppofite fide of the chair. Make V I di equal VII, and, in the fame way, d equal IV. Laftly, the ſcale st for the proportion of the chair is adjuſted to the ſcale A B, on the principles noticed at fig. 8, plate 1 , which fee. Each divifion on s t is 3 inches, turn up 6 of thefe, which will be as 18 inches for the height of the feat, from which draw to VI. Give 21 of thefe inches to the length of the front, and draw to d 1; ſo, on the other hand, at v for the depth of the chair from from front to back and draw to d. The height of the back Jo 1 • 408 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . is placed at u. To fay any thing more is needlefs, and, of courſe, I have the fhadows to confider afterwards. Ofthe Lady's or Gentleman's Secretary and Bookcafe, having its Ends and Front oblique to the Piðure. In this example I must not be prolix in the deſcription, having more particularly to confider the fhadowing, and fhall therefore only obferve the following things : -That VNis the vanifhing point of the ends, and L of the front. The opened door comes into the picture, and vanishes into the fame point as the ends. Draw d for the neareſt end, and I to Lfor the front. From d to 1 is equal to the width ofthe door ; therefore in drawing 1 , at that diſtance from d, admits of the opening of the door. Through o draw from d 3 to h ; h, k, n are then the centre and ex tremities of the lower part ; e is its height ; and ƒ that of the upper part. Laftly, the width ofthe end is at b. I might now proceed to the fhadows ; but this, we pre fume, will not be eafily understood till we have pointed out to the learner their nature, by a few plain examples, which we ſhall give in the next ſection . SECTION XIII. Of Shadows occafioned by the Sun's Rays. The infinite diftance of the fun's rays admits of their being confidered as parallel to each other, and therefore when the fun is fuppofed to be in a plane parallel to the picture, the rays are repreſented by lines parallel to each other, and the fhadows they project on the ground, or any plane parallel to it, are alfo parallel to the ground line, and their ends vaniſh into the centre of the picture. On this principle are the fhadows of the picture on plate 4 con ducted, as being the moſt convenient for thoſe objects, and moſt familiar to illuftrate, PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 409 There are, however, two other principles which may be adopted in the application of fhadows ; as, when the fun is fuppoſed to be before the picture, and when it is con fidered behind it. Whenthe fun is before it, the ſhadows fall behind the object , fometimes towards that vaniſhing line into which their objects vaniſh. But when the fun's rays are fuppofed to come from behind the picture, its fhadows have a contrary effect, and make their way to wards the ground line, to which, as they approach, they become broader and appear before their objects. And it muft ever be obſerved, that whatever pofition of the fun's rays be adopted in a picture, that muſt be applied uniformly through the whole, and to every object. Whenthe rays of light come either before or behind the picture, or, in other words, in any direction oblique to the picture, both the rays of light and the fhadows projected by them, will have their proper vaniſhing points, and confe quently the fhadows will be oblique to the ground line. The vanishing points of light will be either above or below the horizon, and always placed on lines drawn perpendi cular to it. When the light is behind the picture, the vaniſhing point of the fun's rays will be above ; but, if from the front, below the horizontal line. The three cafes of fhadowing, now defcribed, may be thus illuftrated : 1. When the rays are parallel to the picture, as figure 10, plate 2, rr, rr, are the rays, parallel to each other, and in an angle, according to the fuppofed height of the fun. The cube being oblique, C and d are the vaniſhing points of the fides ; draw r, n, r, 0, 1 , 2, each parallel to the ground line from each angle ; draw r C and I d, and the fhadow will be completed. 2. When the fun is in the front of the picture, as fig. 11, here the cube is parallel to the picture, and there fore its fides vanish into C the centre. Through C 410 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING . ' draw SC; and fuppofe S the vanishing point of the fun's rays on the picture, draw from 1 to S, which will cut the vifual line 2 C at 2, from whence a line being drawn parallel to the ground line, the fhadow is complete. 3. Whenthe fun is behind the picture, as at fig. 9, the cube is oblique, and its fides vaniſh into V L, I is the diftance, C the centre, and d the diſtance of the vaniſhing line IL; but thefe belong only to the linear reprefentation ; but what follows is for the fhadow. Through V, draw a line perpendicular, and fuppofe S the vaniſhing point of the rays. From the vanishing point V drawthe lines 4, and 3. From S do the fame, touching the angles of the cube 1, 2, and theſe rays will interfect the lines from V at 3, 4. From 4 draw to L, the vaniſhing point ofthis fide of the cube, and the ſhadow will be completed. Having given this concife view of the nature ofſhadows, I fhall now proceed to the picture, plate 4, and confider its fhadows; but, to prevent it from being too crowded with letters, we fhall only attend to the gentleman's fecretary, as it contains every difficulty in the whole, ſo that the learner will eafily know how to proceed with the fhadowing of the other pieces. Ithas already been obſerved, that the fhadows in this picture fuppofe the fun in a plane parallel to it, and the rays, therefore, have no vaniſhing point on the picture, but are drawn by parallel lines, as 8, 9, 10, 11, &c, which rays are ftopped by lines drawn parallel to the ground line, from each angle of the lower part of the ſecretary ; and from theſe interfecting points, lines are drawn to the refpective vaniſhing points, by which the fhadows are compleated. Let us then begin with the open door, by drawing the ray 3 and 2, for the top and bottom of the door. Draw from 2 a line to V N, alfo from three to that point. Now as the door projects further out than the front ofthe fecretary drawer, a line must be drawn perpendicular from PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. 411 which in From 4 which is a the end of the front to p, cutting a line tending to V N. The from p, draw a line parallel to 4, terfects the line drawn from 3 to V N. draw to the vanishing point L. From q, point perpendicular to the front angle of the upper part, draw parallel to 9, and from 9 to L as before. Drawthe ray 10 II meeting that line at the point 11 , and from II draw to V N ; then obferve the ray 13 14 paffes from the back angle of the top of the book- cafe, and therefore the fpace from 13 to 11 , is the ſhadow projected by the top end of the book-cafe. Laſtly, the ray 12 comes from the back angle ofthe lower part, and is interfected by a paral lel line from the bottom of it ; and as the ſecretary, or lower part is longer than the book- cafe, fo the ſhadow at 12, is broader than at 13, which is from the book- cafe. In this manner I prefume the learner will be able to find the ſhadows of the other objects, eſpecially if affifted by the following obfervations. `Firſt-that lines muſt be drawn parallel to the ground line from the bottom angles on which the objects reft, as from each of the table legs. Second-thefe lines muft always be interfected by rays, drawn from each projecting angle at the top. Third-the points of ſhadows projected on the ground thus found, muſt be joined by lines tend ing to the fame vaniſhing points, to which the objects themſelves vaniſh. If in this picture the fun's rays had come from behind, and in an angle to it, equal to the line I V P, which the learner will obferve is diſtinguiſhed by writing, the fha dows in that cafe would appear like 1, 2, 8 in the ſmall picture, which is thus repreſented that the large one may be more clearly underſtood, as well as the fubject of fha dows in general. But if the rays had come from the front, the fhadows would have been projected on the ground, as that of fig. 2, in the fmall picture. From this miniature picture, the learner will fee more of the 412 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. doctrine of fhadows, than poffibly could have been uns derftood from the large one without it ; for he may obſerve the connection between the diſtance, centre of the pic ture, various vanishing points, both for the lines and fhadows, and alfo for the rays of the fun, which I myfelf never could thoroughly understand, even after a great deal ofreading, until being able to conceive of it in the manner now prefented to my reader ; and which, for his fake, I will now analyze, and then cloſe this ſubject. Confider G M N R as the boundaries of the picture, H Lits horizon, GRthe ground line, C I the centre and diftance of the picture, and I V, and d the place of the eye tranfpofed to the horizon. Fig, I is parallel to the pic ture, and its ends vanifh into the centre. Fig. 2 is oblique to it, both ends and front, and vanifh to dand I V. We now proceed to fix on the pofition of the fun, with reſpect to the picture ; and the pofition which is moſt approved by painters, is that which-fuppofes the fun in the front of the picture, for then the objects are bright in front, and their fhadows recede behind them, as fig. 2. In this fituation it may be either perpendicular, or inclined to it. Ifperpen dicular, then the vanifhing point of the fun's rays will be fomewhere on a perpendicular line, paffing through the centre C. The angle that the rays make with the horizon, may be greater, or lefs, as we pleaſe, but ſuppoſe 37°. From the diftance I V, draw to s b, which will be at fuch an angle, then will s b, be the vaniſhing point of the fun, and that of the fhadow will be it, into which the object it felf vanishes ; that is, the parts of the objects which are parallel to the horizon, as 5, 1 , in fig. 3, but thoſe perpen dicular to it, will vaniſh to the centre, as 1 , 2, fig. 3. If the light comes from behind the picture, and keep its per pendicular pofition and angle of inclination to the horizon as before, then s, as high above the horizon, ass b below it, will be the vanishing point of the folar rays, and the fhadows will come forward, as in fig 4; for the cross PERSPECTIVE DRAWING, 413 ga, vanishes into d, being parallel to the horizon, but the pright part being parallel to the vanishing line of the rays cs, sb, its fhadow vanifhes into C, therefore draw Co out, and from s, the vanishing point ofthe fun, draw sp, meeting at a, and through r, draw r t. Laftly, draw the rays gn, cutting at r t, which gives the fhadow ofthe cross. The fhadow of fig. 3 is obvious from what has been faid ; and we will now confider the fun's rays oblique both ways. Suppofe the fun then to be inclined to the picture, in the line I, V P, as was noticed before ; make V P, D equal I, VP the diſtance of the fun's va niſhing line, then draw SI, D parallel to, or confider it to be the angle of, the fun's rays with the horizon ; then will I be the vanishing point when the fun is behind, and s as much below, will be its vanifhing point when in the front of the picture ; and the vanishing points of the fhadows will be in V P. According to the laft pofition, is fig. 2 fhadowed by drawing from the angles ba, to s below, and from its bottom fl, to V P, interfecting at ed, from which points draw to I V, which compleats the fhadow. The cube, fig. 1 , is fhadowed both ways, that the learner may compare the difference : for obſerve, the line 5, 4 tends to s below, and gives the fhadow at 4 ; but as the front of the cube is parallel, fo is the fhadow behind ; and as the angle 5 of the cube is perpendicular to the ground, or parallel to the fun's vanishing line V P, SI, s, fo the other fide of the fhadow vanishes to V P, the fun's vanishing point. Laftly, if we confider the fun at S I, then draw through 7, 8, and 5. From V P, draw through 9, cutting at 6, from C the centre, drawthrough 6, becauſe the ends of the cubes vaniſh to C, I mean the horizontal angles 5, 7, 8, 10 ; and as the line C, 6 meets the ray 7, 2, draw 2, 3 parallel to the angle of the cube 8. From V P, draw through the angle 12, which 8甍1 414 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. meets at 3, and completes the fhadow: for obferve, that the angle 10, 8, does not effect the fhadow on that fide of the cube, as is evident from the lines. It is the perpendi cular angle 12, 8, from whence the fhadow is projected forward at 12, 3 for the plane of rays paffing by that an gle, being parallel to the vanishing line of the fun, V P, SI the fhadow of the angle 12, 8 muft vaniſh into V P, but on the other fide next the centre C ofthe picture, there are two planes of rays meeting each other, which occafion the outline ofthe fhadow to be compoſed with two lines, one tending to C, the other to V P. The rays paffing over the angle 5, 7, are parallel to the vaniſhing line, which is I, C, s b, and therefore the fhadow it produces at 6, 2 tends to C, but the plane of rays paffing the angle 5, 9 is in a plane paffing through V P, therefore its fhadow 9, 6, vanishes to VP. Upon the whole then, I truft the learner fees ſomething of the variety of vaniſhing points, that may occur in one picture, produced by objects perpendicular, and variouſly oblique to the picture. Howtheſe are governed by the dif tance, and centre, and what dependence the projections of ſhadows have upon theſe. Much more might have been offered, both on the linear, and ſhadowing part of perſpective as to examples ; but in point ofprinciples and theory, as much has been ſaid, as may enable the learner to extend his knowledge in perfpec tive, to any degree he may defire, or find neceſſary. OF Painting in General. CHAP. I. Of common and domeftic Painting. The reader, having wearied himſelf with the rigid rules of perſpective, may here recreate his mind a little with common practical painting, as a foundation for advances in landſcape, and other higher branches of this art. We have laid fome foundation for this in geometrical, archi tectural, and perſpective drawing ; without which, no man can be, as a painter, more than a common country dauber; although he may, at the fame time, poffefs talents and genius that may render him capable of the higheſt im provement. Yet it is neceffary for an entire ftranger to begin with knowing as much of plain painting as fuch are ſuppoſed to do, that he may be acquainted with all the ma terials, and the manner of compounding them to advan tage, and ufing them on plain grounds with fuccefs. There are various methods of priming, coating, and giving the finiſhing lay of plain furfaces, according to the object in view, in point of durability, cheapneſs, facility and beauty, and conſiſtent with the adopted prin ciple, whether in oil, varniſh, or water colours. • In all external works, the beſt priming is white lead, with which fome mix Spaniſh brown, when the colour will admit of it, as for common timber work, and linfeed oil, mixed thin, that the oil may more readily fink into the wood to preſerve it ; but the fecond lay of colour may be a little thicker, and gradually increaſe till the work is finiſhed, which, as it is proceeded with, admits more of the fpirits of turpentine, and other drying ingredients. 416 PAINTING IN GENERAL . And, in the intervals between each priming and painting, a fufficient time ſhould be allowed for each cover to dry before another is laid on ; and for this purpofe, to avoid mixing the colour too thick, and on the other hand, to be careful not to dilute the mixture with too much turpen tine ; which will work through the colour of the preceding lay, and injure the work as to durability. And the young painter fhould be careful to keep his bruſh perpendicular to the furface he paints, and work with the end of the tool as much as poffible. In the nicer parts of external work, fuch as front doors, and windows much expoſed to the air, delicate and bright colours, hable to change, the pure oil of walnuts may be applied in grinding, and in diluting the paint, add to this oil, an ounce of the fpirits of turpentine to about a pound of colour ; and to give luftre to the work, a fmall portion of turpentine varnifh may be added, which will prevent the paint from bliftering. In all works expoſed tothe heat of the fun, drying materials, except boiled linfeed oil, fhould be avoided, that the intenſe heat may not blifter and crack the work. For internal work, fuch as doors that require a fine body and luftre, it is ufual to begin with clear coating, or fize, made of leather, or fome times with glue, but the former is preferable, in which a little ochre is mixed, but very thin. After two primings of this kind, the furface fhould be ſmoothed with glafs paper, before the oil primers be laid on. And if it be found that the knots of wood will not take the oil paint, touch them with a mixture of oil, red lead, and litharge. In proceeding with the coatings of oil colours, the ficca tives may be uſed with great freedom, that the work may dry more ſpeedily, to prevent its receiving the duft, that is fo apt to fall on work that is long in fetting. In dark colours, give to every pound, in diluting them, half an ounce oflitharge ; to bright colours, a drachm of white PAINTING IN GENERAL. 417 copperas, ground in walnut oil . Some ufe adrying oil, prepared as follows :-Take half an ounce of litharge, as much of calcined cerufe, a kind of burnt white lead, the fame quantity ofterre d'ombre, and as much of talc, boiled for two hours, on a flow and equal fire, with one pound of linfeed oil, ftirred the whole time ; after which, it muſt be carefully ſkimmed and clarified ; which will increaſe in goodneſs as it grows old. In compounding this oil with paint, give about a quartern or fourth part of a pint to a pound weight of colour, which is already prepared in other respects for laying on ; for it ſhould be obferved that no kind of drying ingredient must be mixed with the paint, till it is to be immediately ufed ; otherwife it will be more difficult to lay on, and, in ſome caſes, will quite ftiffen the colour, and render it ufelefs. The finiſh ing lay of colours , on doors, &c. fhould not be applied till the preceding work is well hardened ; and then bruſh it over, after havingfoftly rubbed off any little particles of roughneſs with glafs paper, fo as not to injure the brightneſs already given to the work. Having thus prepared for the laft lay, if the quality of the work will afford it, grind the colours in turpentine only, or with a mixture of turpentine varniſh and the pure fpirits of turpentine, in equal quantities ; and then bring it to a flowing or limped ftate by copal varniſh. This mixture willdry quick, not crack, and will give a peculiar luftre to the work. The dearnefs of copal varniſh precludes a general uſe of it ; and, therefore, the drying oil above mentioned, with fugar of lead added, may do for moſt purpoſes ; but the manner of grinding may be the fame as when copal is ufed ; but take notice, fhould there be in the compofition of turpentine varniſh, too much rofin, this mixture will be apt to chill, or thicken rapidly, to prevent which, add a mixture of raw linfeed oil and E e 418 PAINTING IN GENERAL . Venice turpentine, which will foften it, and make it flow . The white lead ground in oil , as it comes from the mill, fhould not be diluted with turpentine varniſh, for the fame reaſon, as they do not agree together in ſuch quantities ; and when it is wanted to preferve its white nefs, a mixture of nut oil, oil of walnuts, or pinks, with fpirits of turpentine, ſhould be uſed in bringing it to a proper confiftence ; but, for common purpoſes, boiled or raw linfeed oil and turpentine will do. With respect to fine dead whites, fometimes ufed in domeftic painting, the priming ſhould be of ſeruſe, and glove leather fize, with Paris white, well ground in water ; and after a fufficient ground is laid, not too thick, left it ſhould crack, grind up white flake, if for fine work, or com mon white ground up in turpentine only, and diluted with nut oil to a fuitable degree, with a little pale cryſtal varniſh, that has been lately invented, which will bind the work. To know with certainty, what proportions will do, fo as to leave the white dead, fize a ſmall piece of wood with the fame as is uſed for the work, and before the oil colour is laid on, try the effect on the ſmall piece ; after which you proceed with fafety. The deadneſs of the white will partly depend upon the coats of fize given, which, if fubftantial, partly abforbs the oil colour, and renders it dead ; but if the work be not firm enough in the ſurface, another lay must be added . The colours that are uſed in oil, may be found in the the dictionary, under the articles Black, Blue, Red, &c. where fome notice is taken of their quality and uſe, which fee. The colouring of walls is another article of domeftic painting that ſhould be attended to. Ifthe walls are not dry, they require to be repeatedly waſhed with boiling PAINTING IN GENERAL. 419 linfeed oil ; but if well feafoned, two or three layers will do ; then lay on two coats of ochre, ground and diluted in linfeed oil, boiled. But obferve, that after the firft lay of ochre, the walls ought to be cleared of knots or roughneſs with glaſs or emery paper ; after which, the laft lay of priming ground, fine ; and thus prepared, they may be finiſhed in any colour. But, if intended ofa fine bright bolour, as French grey, or ftraw, cerufe will do better for priming than ochre. CHAP. 2. Of Painting in Common Water Colour. To paint in water colours , is to do it in thoſe which are ground in water, and diluted in fize. There are three kinds of this painting : namely, common, the varniſhed, and that which is called king's white. Painting in common water colour, may include the walls and ceilings of ſtaircaſes, and is generally per formed by the infufion of earths in water mixed with fize. For this, or any other kind of common whiting, ſteep Spaniſh white, moderately pounded, in water for two hours. Infuſe a little of the black of charcoal and queen's blue, if it be required of a greyish tint ; if a pure white, a little of the blue only. The beſt kind of fize for this, or any other fort of whiting, is that made of glove leather ; the clippings of which may be had at any glove-makers. This is to be boiled, till the water in which it is boiled feels ſticky between the fingers ; and for walls, and other large furfaces, the fize fhould only befo ftrong as to prevent its rubbing off by the hand. In this ftate it will lay with more freedom and ſmooth nefs, than when the fize is ftronger. If the walls are dirty, they ſhould be ſcraped clear of greaſe, and bruſhed, and then waſhed over with lime-water, which makes 420 PAINTING IN GENERAL. . the whiting take better. If the walls are rather inclin ingto dampneſs, or not thoroughly dried after plaftering, the fize muſt be ftronger, and the furface waſhed twice over with lime-water. Afecond method of whiting walls , is very beautiful : Procure a fufficient quantity of the beft lime, and let it pafs through fine linen ; pour it into a large tub, fur nifhed with a spigot, at the height equal to that which the lime occupies ; fill the tub with clear fountain water, and ftir and beat it well up ; then let it fettle twenty four hours, and, opening the fpigot, let the water paſs off, and ſupply it again with freſh water, repeating the operation a few times, which will bring the lime to the greatest degree of whiteness. If the lime thus purified be thought too glaring a white, add a little blue verdi ter to the quantity to be uſed, and with it, a ſmall quantity of turpentine, to give it brilliancy. The fize ufed in the firft method will do in this, with the ad dition of fome alum. A new wall may require four or five layers of this waſh ; and when it is fufficiently dry, rub it over with a brufh of hog's briftles, which will brighten and enliven the appearance. A fhining black for the backs of chimneys, or any thing of this kind, may be made with lamp black and lead ore, mixed with fize. When the colour is dry, poliſh it by dipping a dry bruſh into the duft of lead ore, and rub the coloured chimney with this till it fhines. CHAP. 3. OfVarnished Water Colours. This kind of painting leaves no offenſive ſmell, and permits the places to be inhabited as foon as finiſhed. The fize for this kind of painting is made of clippings of parchment, the fame as for gilding, which fee under the article Gilding. To this fize is added, a liquid made PAINTING IN GENERAL. 421 as follows :-Take three heads of garlic, and a handful of wormwood leaves ; boil them in three pints of water till they are reduced to one ; pafs the juice through a linen cloth, and mix it with a pint of parchment fize ; add half a handful of falt, and half a pint of vinegar, and boil the whole. Size the wood with this boiling liquor, taking care to fpread it even on. This firft fizing ferves to fill up the pores of the wood, and to prevent the materials afterwards from collecting in a body, which cauſe it to fall off in fcales. In a pint of ftrong parchment fize, to which is to be added four pints. of warm water, put two handfuls of Bougavil or Spaniſh white ; ftir it about over a fire, and when it is well mixed and gently heated, give the work as many layers of this as may be found requifite ; ifthe furface muſt be poliſhed, it will require feven or eight times ; which, after hav ing effected by means of glafs paper, pumice ftone, cold water, and new linen cloth, the colour may be applied of any tint. But obferve, that whatever colour is uſed it must be diluted in parchment fize, after grinding it with water. When the work is well hardened, make a weak and perfectly clear fize, which must be trained through a cloth, of which, with a foft hog's hair bruſh that has been uſed, give the work two layers ; and care must be taken to lay them cool, quick, and even on, leſt the fize ſhould ſoften the colour, and render the furface that was poliſhed uneven, and perhaps of two colours. Much of the beauty of the work depends upon the laſt fizing ; for, if any part be omitted, the varnish will penetrate through, and give it a different fhade. After the fizing is dry, varnish it over two or three times with white hard fpirit varnish. If the tint is to be white, this will occafion the most trouble, it being moft liable to fhew every imperfection of the work, eſpecially if the furface be large. It is impoffible to varnish over 1 422 PAINTING IN GENERAL. white grounds without impairing the luftre ; and, there fore, it is common in houfework, to finish in thin fize and white flake, when the work is very fine, and white lead or cerufe when much of it is wanted. But ifthe white ground muſt be varniſhed, mix with it, very thin, a little white flake, finely pounded, and if poffible, make one lay do ; for in going over it twice, it will be more apt to fhade. Laftly, it fhould be obſerved, that the whole of the operations fhould be performed within the reach of a mild heat, and none of the fize laid on boil ing hot ; but the laſt ſhould be laid on little more than new milk warm. What is called king's white, has a reference to the manner of ufing it, and not to the quality ofthe white ; it is in all refpects conducted like the former, except that there is only a ſmall quantity of indigo to take the yellow from the white, without any black of charcoal, as in fil ver greys, and without any varniſh. This white anſwers extremely well in apartments which are feldom uſed, as it is very liable to fpoil. It is the beſt white where there is any kind of gilding ; in which caſe it receives a little varniſh. CHAP. 4. Of Painting Furniture. The principal thing which conftitutes this a diftinct branch of painting, is the general ufe of fize and varniſh colours, by which it is performed with much greater diſpatch and effect. Yet the prices allowed in the country, at leaſt in many parts of it, are fo poor, that the painter can hardly diftinguifh furniture from common oil painting. Of Painting Chair-feats. Rufh-bottom chairs ought always to have their feats primed with common white lead, ground up in linfeed 1 PAINTING IN GENERAL. 423 oil, and diluted with fpirits of turpentine. This firft priming preſerves the ruſhes, and hardens them ; and, to make it come cheaper, the ſecond coat of priming may have half Spaniſh white in it, if the price require it. The third coat fhould be ground up in fpirits of turpen tine only, and diluted with hard varnifh, which will dry quick ; but ſhould not be applied till the priming be perfectly dry. Of this, probably the feats may require to have two lays, to make the work firm. A very ſmall quantity of turpentine varniſh may alſo be uſed for cheapneſs, and to keepthe fpirit varniſh in a more flowing ftate ; but the lefs it is ufed the better, fince it is of fuch a quality as makes it very fubject to turn foft and clammy by the heat of the body, when the chairs are uſed to ſit on ; eſpecially, for fome time, at their firft ufe. They who uſe any kind of water colour for ruſh bottoms, entirely deceive the purchaſer, for it rots the ruſhes, and by the fudden puſh of the hand upon the feat, the colour will frequently fly off. All the other parts of chairs are primed with Spanish white, and glove leather fize, as in any other mode of fize painting. Sometimes once over may do, but when the work requires well finiſhing, three times, which fhould be ruſhed, or glass papered down, for the beauty of the japan depends much upon the well-finished fizing ; and it is better when the laft coat of fizing is of white lead ; upon fuch a ground, any colour maybe laid with advantage, as it will always help the effect of the varniſh colours, and particularly bright greens and ſtraws.

To fhorten the defcription, the reader fhould obſerve, that all kinds of colours are to be ground in fpirits of turpentine, and no more of it than what is wanted for prefent ufe, as it prefently dries, and will require as much fpirits to grind it as at the firft. And the fame 424 PAINTING IN GENERAL. must be obſerved in all the varniſh colours, and for more reafon, for when it is left to ftiffen, or fet in pots, it is entirely wafted. Of Painting Chairs. In painting chairs with a green ground, common ver digrife may be uſed ; and, as it is extracted from copper, it is ofa drying quality, and is much helped in colour by be ingpartly diluted withgood turpentine varniſh, and part ly copal; which will preſently dry, if laid on thin, which it always fhould be. But if, in laying on the laſt coat ofgreen, the tool be dipped into white hard varniſh, in a feparate pot, before it is put into the green, this will affift much in fpeedy drying. The green may be com pounded to any fhade by means of white lead, and king's yellow, both ofwhich muſt firſt be ground in turpentine out of the dry colours ; fee alfo Green in the dictionary. A ftraw colour is beft compounded of white lead, king's yellow, and a little Oxford ochre ; and as the king's yellow is a flow drying colour, the more the tint imbibes ofthis, the more it is requifite to lay it on in white hard varniſh. Black grounds for chairs, are generally made of lamp black ; but the black will bear the beft out on a white ground, prepared as before. This colour is of a greafy or oily quality, and a bad drier ; confequently, requires a ſtrong fize priming. Some burn the lamp black, to take awaythe oil out of it ; but this occafions a great wafte, and does not always fucceed in drying much fooner. It is fometimes mixed with ivory black, which helps it to dry, but is too dear for common chair work. When cheapness is not fo much regarded, it fhould be ground up in turpentine, very fine, but previously fifted from the grit to which it is fubject, and then laid on in white hard varniſh, very thin, and repeated. But to PAINTING IN GENERAL. 425 help the black, a little varniſh compoſed of aſphaltum, black rofin, and the drying linfeed oil, which was formerly mentioned, may be uſed in diluting the lamp black, after being ground in turpentine ; for obſerve, lamp black never comes up to its proper colour fo well, as when impregnated with ſomething of linfeed oil in it, If this aſphaltum varnish be uſed with white lead and lamp black, ground in pure turpentine, it may be ap plied to chairs as the firft priming ; and a fecond, with out white lead, will prepare the chairs for the laſt coat, which fhould be in white hard varnish only. CHAP. 8. Of Drawing Lines on Chairs. As black chairs look well whenornamented with yel low lines, it may be proper to give fome directions as to the mixture of the colour, and the manner of drawing thefe. King's yellow and white flake, with a trifle of orange lead, ground finely up in fpirits of turpentine very thick ; for ifthere be too much of the turpentine, the yel low will wash to the ground, and produce a bad line. After grinding, it should be as a pafte ; in which ſtate it will admit a proper quantity of copal varnish in dilut ing it. No other will produce fo good a line, and there fore the beſt of it fhould be procured, as the expence will foon be faved in time. The thicknefs of this mix ture, ſhould not be inore, when diluted with copal, than will permit it to run very freely from the pencil that is filled with it, when it is preffed against an upright furface ; for except it will run from the pencil in fuch a pofition, it will not freely leave the pencil when it is preffed on a level furface, which pofition almoft every thing is placed in when it is to be run with lines. The kind of pencil fhould be of camels hair, very long ; fome halfinch, and three-quarters, or onè inch long inthe 426 PAINTING IN GENERAL. hair, according to the thickness of the line to be drawn. The pencil being well primed with this colour, which ſhould be kept in a deep hole, bring it to a fine point, on a flat marble ftone ; and, in drawing the line, apply the fore-fingerto ſome ſtraight angle of the work, and at the fame time, keeping the pencil between the first finger and the thumb, draw fteadily along, and the quicker the better the line will be drawn, if the colour be in proper order. Any other neceffary deviation from this general rule, muſt be learned from experience and practice, which alone can fupply the defects of every theory in this art. In ornamenting japanned furniture, no perſon can proceed further than to do it by lines, except he has previously been taught, or has practiſed ornamental drawing himſelf. To fuch, a hint or two will be fuffi cient to enable them to avoid any material error, which I fhall point out by fome remarks on window and bed cornices, which are generally ornamented with leaves and fome kind of trophy, or Aowers. OfJapanning Window Cornices. As thefe do not require a great quantity of fize, I adviſe only to give one lay of common whiting and fize, except on any part that cuts acroſs the grain of the wood, as thoſe with round ends, in which cafe it will require more fizing with common whiting, that the ground may be rubbed ſmooth without fhewing the grain. For if the fize coats do not hide it, the finiſhing colours will not. But when the ſurface of either fort of cornices are ſmooth and ftraight, one of fize, and the reft in white lead and varniſh as before directed ; or if two fizings be neceſſary, let the last be of white lead, if the ground be finiſhed in white ; and, to preferve the beauty of the white, give it a coat of clear varniſh before the ornament is painted 1 PAINTING IN GENERAL. 427 upon the ground. If their be any tablet in the centre, let this be painted laft, that it may not be in injured whilſt the other parts are finiſhing. The ornaments ſhould be ſketched in with a black lead pencil, very light, and ſo as not to exceed the out line ofthe colour. And as the leaves and flowers are pro ceeded with, they ſhould be nearly finiſhed at the firſt painting ; particularly when the colours are required to dry quick ; for in this cafe the tints will not blend into each other, if it be not effected whilft the colours are in fome degree wet ; and therefore they may be ground up in nut oil, and diluted in copal varniſh, which will not fet fo quick, and give more opportunity to retouch the work. When the work is finiſhed thus far, to give it effect, it ſhould be touched with high lights, and fome ftrong fhadows laid quick on, and with colours that will fet as quick as may be, to give the greater force, as theſe things are viewed at a good diftance. Thus completed, give the work at least two coats of white hard varniſh. But be particular with white grounds, left any ofthe foft colours fhould not be dry, as the varniſh is apt to work into fuch parts, and fpoil the ground. For gilding chairs, fee Gilding, in the dictionary. CHAP. 5. Remarks on the Choice of Colours. The colours uſed in japanning are precifely the fame as thofe for good oil painting ; but, it is to be obferved, that in every kind of colour, there is fome of a bad, and others of a good quality. Several colours are adulterated, either to reduce the article to a cheap price, or bafely to deceive the purchaſer. White lead is fometimes mixed with Spaniſh white, which may be diſcovered in grinding it up in oil, for the Spaniſh white turns more of a dirty yellow caft, the more it is ground; but white 428 PAINTING IN GENERAL . lead, when good and pure, increaſes in brightneſs the more it is ground. Lakes are frequently adulterated with white flake, vermillion, and Pruffian blue ; which, for fome purpoſes, will anfwer very well for the lake co lour. But the pure good lake is very dear, and in the lump may be known by breaking a piece, which will appear of a bright fcarlet on the broken furface, or ftrongly inclining to that hue ; the bad inclines to a blue crimson colour. Pruffian blue is alfo debafed in quality by heterogenious mixtures ; the beſt kind, when broken, inclines to a deep violet, and is light ; and that which appears a fine blue when broken, is impregnated with flake, lead, or the like. The beft vermillion in clines to a lake colour, or a deep ſcarlet. There are two kinds of verdigrife generally ufed, the common and diftilled ; the common is in large lumps, and con tains more or lefs of fmall pieces of uncorroded copper, which makes it troubleſome to grind ; but it is frequently powdered, and cleared ofthe grains ofcopper, which makes it more convenient to grind ; but it is more apt to fade in this ſtate, when it is kept long ; and for this reafon, in the country, where the fale of it is flow, it is fafeft to buy it in the lump, in which ſtate it is beft kept from fading. The diftilled is clear of both theſe objections ; for in the operation of the refinement, the copper is ex tracted from it, and it is put into large pieces. This is much eaſier ground than the other, and is of all others the moft bright green, when combined with other colours, which help to keep it from fading, to which it is fubject. And for the purpoſe of preventing this, it ought to be worked as much as poffible in turpentine and copal varniſh . CHAP. 6. OfFine-body Water Colours. Moft of the colours that are uſed in oil and varniſh, will answer for this kind of painting. But they ought 1 PAINTING IN GENERAL. 429 to be of the best quality, as in this mode of working they will not prove fo brilliant and forceable, as when worked in varniſh, or oil. This branch of fine painting is beft adapt ed to landſcape, and may be executed with great diſpatch and effect on the walls of elegant apartments, formed into ſeparate pannels. The colours are ground in fair water, and may be kept in pots, in a moift ftate, for a confiderable time, when water is poured over them. In this ftate, they are taken out by the palette knife, and placed on the palette board ; and a kind of foreign glue is diffolved into fair water, in about the proportion of an inch fquare to a pint. With this glue fize the colours are tempered on the palette ; which, if they fhine when applied to the picture, they are too much impregnated with the fize, and therefore fome water muſt be uſed in diluting them on the palette, and the pencil firſt dipped into the fize, and then applied to the colour, and fo laid on. And when the colour does not work freely from the pencil, it ſhould be dipped into another pot with fair water, to wash it, the fame as in painting in oil, the pencil is waſhed in fpirits of turpen tine. After this the pencil muſt be dipped into the fize, and the colour thus applied, and handled in the manner of oil painting. This defcription is fuitable to the eaſel piece, or ſmall picture ; and when the landſcape is on the pannel of a wall, it only requires longer tools, and greater quan tities of each material, together with a bolder effect, as they are to be viewed from the centre of the apartinent. The fkies, in this mode of painting, must be finiſhed at one time, when the colour and ground are wet, in which ftate only the fine mixture of foft fky tints can be managed. And this indeed is the first thing to be done, that nothing may afterwards difturb it. Moſt other remarks in this kind of landſcape painting will fall in with what may be obſerved on oil landſcape. 430 PAINTING IN GENERAL. CHAP. 7. Of Transparent Water Colours. Most of thefe colours are extracted from vegetables, cloths, or earths. Thoſe of vegetable origin are the moſt tranfparent, and fuch as are earthy the leaft, and therefore work with the greateft ftrength or body ; and thoſe from cloth in a medium quality. There are two ways of painting in tranſparent colours ; one, by mixing white flake, or filver white, with the other colours, and laying on a thick body ; the other, by waſh ing the paper with the tranfparent colours only. In the firit method, when the drawing is finiſhed in the out line, the tranfparent colours are mixed with the white, to a de gree about the middle colour, between the higheſt lights and deepest fhadows. From which middle tint, the gra dations of light and fhade are regulated. But if this way of working be applied to landſcape, the learner ſhould obferve to uſe the pure tranfparent colours for the ſky, which will appear most natural and clear ; and in bring ing the landſcape forward, he may ufe more of the white for ftrength. The other method of ufing tranfparent colours, is the fame as working with Indian ink, in which the white of the paper is for the high lights, and muft never be loft, otherwife there can be no true effect given. And it ſhould be particularly obferved, not to lay on the colours any thicker than will work tranfparent, or that the paper will eafily receive, otherwiſe it will ſpoil the work. When, therefore, the out- line of the drawing is finished, and put in faintly with the fame colours that are to be uſed in tinting, the work fhould be cleaned off with ftale white bread, to take away all dirt and greafe occafioned by pencil ing. Then wet the paper within the outline, annd hold it to the air of the fire , which will tend to open the furface of the paper to receive the colours with more freedom. And 11 PAINTING IN GENERAL. 431 whilft the drawing is in this damp ftate, proceed with thin wathes of the feveral tints. In this manner repeat the operations once or twice a day, till the work receives that ftrength oftint which will give it the defired effect. The more time allowed to the intervals of each tinting the bet ter, for then the work will receive a greater body of colour at laft . And when the work is thus far finifhed, and thorough ly dried in, the ftrong touches ofthick colour may then be given in particular places. To perform water colour waſh ing well, it requires to be laid afide, and the work refumed occafionally ; for they who begin and finiſh a water - colour work at one time, are quite miſtaken in the nature of it. Ifthere be any part of the paper that does not take the colour, dip the pencil in a little ox gall, and touch the part with it, and let it dry, and afterwards apply the colour. If any print is to wash with colours which has been printed on foft paper, it muſt firſt be washed with ox gall, to prevent the colours from running. Laftly, when a large furface of paper is to be waſhed over, the pencil cannot be too large for this purpoſe ; and the paper being wet, hold it to the fire till the wet is regu larly funk in ; then lay it on a damp cloth, to keep the furface to be coloured in a moift ftate, during the whole time of waſhing it ; mix the colour in fuch a quantity that will be fure to cover the whole, and let it be thing then take as much at one time in the pencil as will, if pof fible, cover the whole ; and keep the face of the paper in an inclined direction, and beginning from the top, and work downwards, and follow the colour till the whole is covered, taking care not to have to retouch, as this would ſpoil the work. Paper for working in this way, ought to be judiciouſly ſelected , as much of the beauty of its work is dependent upon it. Some drawing paper is over gummed, and 4 432 PAINTING IN GENERAL. therefore will not take the wafhed colour ; and hence, on a fecond tint being given, the firft will partly wash off. It may also be to an extreme the other way, in which cafe, the colours will run and finkin unevenly. The proper medium is, to find the furface rather rough on applying the tongue to it ; and if it be clear, and free of knots, this is a likely paper. In a large drawing to be coloured in the above ftyle, few are fenfible ofthe importance of a right choice of paper, which fometimes makes the fole difference that appears in water colour works, which, by ftrangers, is at tributed to the difference of methods , and other fecrets, which have no exiſtence in the art. CHAP. 8. Of Landscape Painting in Oil. The frame of the intended picture may be covered with fine canvas, and prepared by laying on a coat of ſtrong glue, to fill up the pores of the canvas, and next with glover's fize, and powdered white lead, which must be rubbed fmooth, and a lay of brown ochre, white, and Eight red, ground in nut oil, and brought to the colour of tanned leather. This colour gives a warmth to the ſha dow colours, and is proper for glazing. The defign being fketched in with chalk, or any thing capable of being partly era fed, until the drawing is made correct, take burnt umber, with drying oil, mixed with a little oil of turpentine, and work upon the drawing in a very light manner, as we would do with Indian ink, in fhading a drawing on paper, and leaving the colour of the prepared cloth for the lights. This lays the foundation of the dead colouring, which is not to be put in fo ftrong as the finishing tints, nor to confift of any thing bright or glar ing. The fky fhould be done firft ; then all the distances ; and fo work forward to the principal group in the centre of the picture, and from that to the fore ground. And, it is PAINTING IN GENERAL. 433 to be obſerved, that each group of objects fhould be painted at the fame time, that their colours may harmo nize with each other. Obferve, the finishing of the ſky fhould be done all at one painting, if poffible ; becauſe the tenderneſs requifite in the character of the clouds cannot be produced fo well as when the whole is wet. And as the azure or blue is the first colour, it ſhould be laid on ſtiff, that the colours of the clouds may more eafily be received by it. The greateſt diſtances, or thoſe neareſt the ſky, fhould have their tints made with the colours of the ſky, which ſhould be blended together in a foft manner to agree with it. The best landfcape painters divide their work into three ſeparate paintings, except the ſky ; and each is allowed partly to dry before they proceed with the fucceeding one. Theſe ſeparate paintings lay a foundation for each other, and are not to destroy the work preceding. The firft, or dead painting, lies in the broad fhadows, and gives the natural colours of objects, in a medium between extreme light and fkade, and according to their feveral diftances, every object growing ftronger, and partaking of more of the primitive colours as they advance to the fore ground. The fecond painting is to give more roundnefs and clearness to every object, and to glaze and brighten the whole, but not to deftroy the fhadows of the dead painting, which ought to be feen through the glazing. The glaz ing colours are, lake, terraverte, Pruffian blue, and brown pink, with burnt umber, worked in good drying oil and copal, or other oil varnishes, thinned with fpirits of tur pentine, and managed as tranſparent colours, to give beauty and effect to all that was done in the firſt painting. All the grounds of the objects fhould be made more dif tinctly out, with fuch glazing fhadow colours as feem near eft to the natural hue ofthe objects in that fituation. The third painting heightens the lights, ftrengthens the fhadows, Ff 434 PAINTING IN GENERAL. and gives the finiſhing touches to every part. Says a cer tain artiſt, “ the figures in a landſcape are the laſt work of the picture ; thofe in the foreground fhould be done firſt, and thoſe in the distances next ; for, after the figures in the first and fartheft groups are painted, it will be much eaſier to findthe proportions of thofe in the middle parts ofthe picture." And we fhould obferve, that the fhadows of the figures, fhould be of the fame hue or colour, with thoſe of the group or place they are in. The true lights of a picture, are by comparative whites ; the fhadows, by comparative blacks ; the reflections, by yellows, in a comparative degree ; the turnings off, by a lead blue. Reflected light partakes of the colour of the object that reflects it. And lastly, as every object recedes to the back ground, it muſt appear to mix with the air. This is the true rule of nature, in few words ; for as the quantity of air is greater between the eye of the ſpectator and the object at a distance, than when it is near to it; confequently that very denſe medium of air cauſed by diftant objects, muft tinge every natural colour with its own appearance. This is that part of painting ufually called keeping, upon which depends much ofthe perfection of the art. 435 A LIST Of most of the Master Cabinet-makers, Uphol sterers, and Chair Makers, in and about London, For 1803. ADAMS, Japan Chair Manufacturer, 403, Oxford Street Adams, Cabinet- maker, 122, Minories Allen, G. Upholsterer, Cabinet- maker, &c. 158, Fenchurch- st. Anderson, Chair- maker, Windmill- street, Tottenham- court- road Bagster, James, Upholsterer, 20, Piccadilly Barber, J. Cabinet- maker, 37, Red Lion-square Barberry, Cabinet-maker, George-street, Oxford- road Barrett and Wicksteed, Cabinet- makers, 53 & 54, Wardour-street Barry, A. Upholsterer, 7, Vere- street, Oxford- street Bateson, David, Cabinet- maker, 128, High Holburn Beale, J. Cabinet- maker, 5, Old Bailey Beard, A. Cabinet- maker and Upholsterer, 157, Fenchurch-street Beaumont, John, Cabinet- maker, 45, Beech- street, Barbican Beauchamp, G. Cabinet- maker, 18 , St. Paul's Church-yard Bell, Robert, Upholsterer, 29, Minories Berry, J. Carpet Warehouse, 131 , Fleet- street Binns, Joseph, Cabinet- inlayer, 24, Duke- street, Smithfield Binns, Cabinet-maker, 99, Mount- street, Grosvenor- square Birkit, Richard, Cabinet-maker, King-street, Golden- square Blades and Palmer, Upholders, 177 , Piccadilly Blaiklock, M. Cabinet- maker, 14, North Audley- street Blaxland, Upholsterer, 71 , Old Broad- street Blennerhasset, R. Upholder, 9 , Windmill- street, Finsbury Bolton, John, Upholsterer, 109, St. Martin's-lane Bond, B. Cabinet and Chair- maker, 24, Ratcliff- highway Bounfall, A. Japanned- chair-manufactory, Middle Row Bowker, John, Carpet and Upholstery Warehouse, 3 , Fostern - row Boyce, R. Upholsterer, &c. 22, Charlotte- street, Fitzroy- square Bradley, Francis, Cabinet-maker, 2 , Newman-street, Oxford Road Brown, W. Chair Manufactory, Carlisle- lane, Lambeth Bruce, D. Cabinet & Upholstery Manufactory, 113, Aldersg- st. Buckinham, H. Japanned- chair Manufactory, Old- street, Mint Bunce, William, Upholsterer, 8 , Russel- street, Covent-garden Burbury, Cabinet- maker, George-street, Oxford-road Caincross, William, Cabinet-maker, 11 , Hollen-street, Soho 436 LIST OF MASTER CABINET- MAKERS , &C . Calloway, John, Upholsterer, 64, New Bond-street Chipchase, R. and H. Upholsterers, 39, Dover-street, Piccadilly Chippendale, Thomas, Upholsterer, 60, St. Martin's- lane Christie, John, Chair-maker, 4, Warwick- street, Golden-square Claridge, R. Upholsterer, 185, Oxford- street Clarke, John, Upholsterer, 1 , Cattle- street, Long-acre Clayford, J. Upholsterer, 31 , Bartlett's- buildings, Holborn Cleland, A. Cabinet- maker, 14, Charles- st . Middlesex Hospital Cloake, T. Upholsterer, 4 and 56, Broker- row, Finsbury Cockerill, J. Japanned-chair Manufactory, Curtain- road, and 203, Oxford- street Coleman, Cabinet- maker, Curzon street, May- fair Collip, John, Upholsterer, 122, Great Portland-street Cope and Gray, Upholders, 10, King- street, Bloomsbury Cotter, William, Cabinet-maker, 24, Burr- street, Wapping Cox, Stephen, Upholsterer, 10 and 11 , Great Portland- street Crighton, William, Upholsterer, 28, King-street, Soho Dalzeel, Cabinet maker, 4, Chapel-street, Bedford-row Davis, S. Upholsterer, 2, Little St. Martin's- lane Davis, N. Upholsterer, 16, Giltspur-strcct, Smithfield Dawes, T. Cabinet maker and Upholder, 69, Dean-street, Soho, and 48, Conduit- street, Hanover- square Deacon, Samuel, Cabinet- maker, 22, Wardour- street, Soho Derbyshire, John, Cabinet-maker, 145, Whitecross- street Dickson, Upholsterer, Castle- street, Long-acre Dingle, Cabinet and Chair-maker, 9, Great Pulteney-street Dollett, Upholsterer, 48 , Minories Donaldson, Chair-maker, Great Denmark- street, Soho Draper, Upholsterer, &c . Broker- row, Finsbury Draper, Chair- maker and Japanner, Queen- street, Southwark Dunch, Upholsterer, 12, Shepherd-street, New Bond- street Duthoit, Cabinet- maker, 9 , Old Broad- street Edmonds, Cabinet- maker, 6, Old Compton- street, Soho Elliott and Co. Upholsterers to his Majesty, 97, New Bond- street Elward, Marsh, and Co. Upholsterers, 13 , Mount-street Engleheart, Cabinet- maker, 40, Castle- street, Oxford- market Evans, Upholsterer, 1 , Budge- row Eyre, Upholstery Warehouse, 356, Oxford - street Farrer, Upholsterer, Prince's- street, Leicester- square Fawley and Ward, Japanned- chair, &c. Manufactory, 43, War dour- street, Soho Finer, William, Upholsterer, 21 , Camomile- street Finlayson, Chair-maker, Midford- place, Tottenham- court-road Fleming and Sheppard, Upholsterers, 4, Chandos- street Fleuriot, Upholsterer, 7, Great Tower- street Flint and McLellan, Upholsterers, 114, Great Russel- street i LIST OF MASTER CABINET- MAKERS, &C. 437 Flint, Cabinet- maker, &c. 13 , Greek- street, Soho Flintoff, Upholsterer, 67, Smithfield Folgham and Son, Case and Cabinet- makers, 81 , Fleet- street Fontaine, Upholder, 25, Great Russel- street, Covent- garden Fossett, Upholsterer, 5 and 6, Leadenhall - street Foxall and Fryer, Upholsterers, 19 , Old Cavendish- street France and Beckwith, Upholsterers, 101 , St. Martin's Lane Gee, Turner and Chair- maker, 49, Wardour- street Gibbons, Upholsterer, 3 , Bucklersbury Gillow and Co. Cabinet- makers, &c. 176, Oxford- street Glover, C. Upholsterer, Corner of Albemarle- street, Piccadilly Glover, T. Upholsterer, 201 , Piccadilly Godfree, Upholsterer and Cabinet- maker, Palace Yard, Wesminster Goodcheap, Cabinet- maker, 142, Goswell - street Graham and Lichfield, Uphosterers, 72, St. Martin's- lane Graham, Cabinet-maker, &c. 7 , St. Paul's Church-yard Groves, Upholstery, &c. Warehouse, 179, Borough Green, Cabinet- maker, 20, Mortimer- street Greenwood, Cabinet- maker, 23 , Fenchurch- street Griffin, Chair-maker, Whitcomb- street Griffith, Cabinet- maker, &c. Redcross- street, Southwark Griffiths, Upholsterer, 27, Little Alie- street Grimes, Cabinet-maker, 69, Red Lion- street, Clerkenwell Hales, Upholsterer, 1, Bolt- court, Fleet- street Hall and Hersant, Cabinet-makers, 2, Broker- row, Finsbury Hamilton, Upholsterer, 54, Whitechapel Harris, Chair.maker, Church- street, Lambeth Hawkins, Cabinet- maker, 9, Broad- street, Bloomsbury Hay, Cabinet- maker, 73, Long- acre renning, Upholsterer, 23, Leicester- square Heppell, Upholsterer, 53, Wigmore- street, Cavendish- square Hepworth, Cabinet-maker, 12, Little St. Martin's- lane Herring, Upholsterer and Cabinet- maker, 109, Fleet- street Hewlins, Upholsterer, 2, Strand Hodgson, Upholsterer, &c. 70, Gt. Queen.st. Lincoln's - inn - fields Holberd, Upholsterer, 16, Noble- street, Foster-lane Holloway, Upholsterer and Undertaker, 34, Rathbone- place Homersham, Upholsterer, 245 , Borough Horsley, Chair- maker, 1, Worship-street, Finsbury Hudson and Corney, Cabinet- makers, 4 and 13 , Broad- street, Soho . Huggett, Chair Manufactory, Borough- road Ince, 23, Holles street, Cavendish- square James, Upholsterer, 63, Shoreditch Jenkins, Upholder, &c. 75, Long-acre Jermain, Cabinet-maker, 10 Broad- street, Golden square Jolit, Cabinet-maker, 6, Old Broad- street 438 LIST OF MASTER CABINET - MAKERS , &C. Jordan, Chair and Cabinet Manufactory, 15, Artillery-street Kay, Upholsterer, 14, Ludgate-hill Kemp, Cabinet-maker, &c. 64, Cornhill Kent and Lack, Upholsterers, 67, London-wall Kerr, Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer, 31 , Pall -mall Kidd, Upholsterer and Cabinet -maker, 62, New Bond- street Lamb, Cabinet-maker, 9 and 10, Jewin- street Legg, Upholsterer, 71 , Fleet- street Little, Upholsterer, &c . 47, Mortimer.street Loader, sen. Upholstery Warehouse, 14, Broker-row, Finsbury Loader, jun. ditto ditto, 5, ditto Long, Upholsterer, 13, Great Newport - street Lonsdale, Cabinet- maker, &c. 7, Broad-street, Soho Lyatt, Cabinet- maker, 34, Chiswell- street Lyne, Cabinet-maker, 13 , Vere street, Cavendish- square Lyon, Upholsterer, Duke-street, Manchester- square M.Dowell, Chair- maker, Tottenham - street M'Lean and Son, Upper Terrace, Tottenham-court- road, and Marylebone-street Mackenzie and Blissott, Upholsterers, 24. Maryhome str. Piccadilly Mann, Upholsterer and Cabinet- maker, 28, Rood- lane Marshall, Upholsterer, 21 , Gerrard- street, Soho Maxey, Upholsterer, 60, Aldersgate- street Mayhew and Ince, Upholsterers, 47, Marshall-str. Carnaby.mark. Meek, Chair Manufactory, 11 , Forster- street, Bishops Mills, Cabinet-maker, &c. Bedford street, Bedford-row Moore, Upholsterer, Leopard's Court, Baldwin's Gardens Morel, Upholsterer, Great Marlborough- street Morgan and Saunders, Upholsterers, 16 and 17 , Catherine- street Morris, Cabinet Warehouse, 26, St. Paul's Church-yard Mowyer and Co. Cabinet- makers, 208, Oxford Road Newman, Upholsterer, 13, St. Catherine's Newton, Upholsterer, &c. 63, Wardour- street, Soho Norris, Upholstery Warehouse, 55, High Holborn Noyes, Upholsterer, 61 , Cannon-street Oakley, Shackleton, and Evans, Upholsterers, 22 , St. Paul's Church-yard, and 8, Old Bond- street Oswald and Nicols, Cabinet and Chair-makers, 75 , Welstead-street Oxford- road Owen, Upholsterer, 54, Broad- street, Soho Partridge, Cabinet-maker, Rupert-street Patton and Co. Chair-makers, Little Rathbone-place Pearson, Upholsterer, 25, Clement's- lane Peirson, Upholsterer, &c. 14, Cullum- street Pettitt, Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer, 47, Brewer-street Phillips, Upholstery Warehouse, 134, Fenchurch - street LIST OF MASTER CABINET- MAKERS, & C. 439 Philp, Upholsterer and Cabinet-maker, Great St. Helen's Pickstone, Upholsterer, 7, Newcastle- street, Strand Pizzie, Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer, Cullum- street Potts and Son, Upholsterers, 99, Wardour- street Prentice, Cabinet- maker, 12, Little Wild- street Preston, Upholsterer, &c. 349, Rotherhithe- street Price, Upholsterer, Red- cross- street, Borough Pringle, Cabinet-maker, Wardour-street, near Oxford Street Purdie, Cabinet- maker, &c. 98, High Holborn Randall, Upholsterer, 171 , Piccadilly Reeder, Cabinet- maker, 392 , Oxford- street Rhodes, Cabinet- maker, 7, Warwick-court, Holborn Ricketts, Upholstery Warehouse, 14, Broker- row, Finsbury Riley and Fowler, Cabinet- makers, &c. 77, Swallow- street Riley, Upholsterer, 25, Cork- street, Burlington- gardens Robins, J. Upholsterer, Warwick- house, Beak- street, Golden-square Robinson, Upholsterer, 29 , Little Queen-street, Holborn Robison, Upholsterer, 76, High- street, Marybone Ruckman and Wine , Chiali Manufactory, zo, Ked- cross- street, Borough 12, Salmon, Cabinet- maker, &c. Chapel-street, Lamb's- conduit- street. Salmon, Chair Manufactory, 427, Oxford-street Sammes, Upholsterer, &c. 53, Great Russel-street, Bloomsbury Sandilands, Cabinet-maker, &c. 112 , Wapping Savill, Upholsterer, &c. 17, Aldgate High- street Schofield, Cabinet-maker, Charlotte- street, Rathbone- place Scott, Upholsterer, &c. 29, Ludgate- hill Seaton, Cabinet- maker and Upholsterer, Greenwich Seddon and Co. Upholsterers and Cabinet-makers, 24, Dover-street Seddons, Cabinet-maker, 150, Aldersgate-street Semple, Cabinet- maker, 78, Margaret- street, Oxford- road Shaw and Son, Upholsterers, 34, Hatton- street Sherren, Cabinet- maker, 38, Margaret- street. Sherwood, Cabinet- maker, 42, Bartholomew- close Shipman, Cabinet- maker, 9, George-yard, Lombard- street Sims, Upholsterer, 145, High Holborn Simson, Upholsterer, 19, St. Paul's Church-yard Simson, Cabinet- maker, 4, New Bond- street Smallwood, Cabinet- maker, 5, Greenfield- street, Whitechapel Smith, Chair-maker, Wardour- street, Soho Smith and Co. Upholsterers, 69, Lower Grosvenor- street' Smith and Co. Upholsterers, 7 , Great East Cheap Snell, Upholsterer, 15, Hanover- street, Long-acre Somerville, Cabinet-maker, 29, Chancery- lane Speer, Cabinet maker and Upholsterer, 2 , Tower- street Staines and Carpenter, Upholstery Warehouse, 5, Ironmonger-lane 440 LIST OF MASTER CABINET- MAKERS, &C. Stephens, Upholsterer and Cabinet- maker, 217, Piccadilly Stephens, Upholsterer, 18 , Lower Brook- street, Bond-street Stephenson, Cabinet- maker, Greek-street, Soho Stokes, Cabinet- maker, 26, Tooley- street Stovill, Upholsterer, 3 , Lower Grosvenor- street Stubbs, Blind-maker, Oxford- road Stubbs, Chair maker, 20, Old- street Swift, Grant, and Hurley, Upholsterers, &c, 226, Piccadilly Tait, Upholsterer, &c. 92, Jermyn - street, St. James's Thomas, Jos. Upholsterer, 13 , Charles - street, Grosvenor- square Thompson, B. R. Dyed Chair-maker, 62, Red-lion - str . Clerkenw. Thomson and Fiske, Cabinet- makers, 2, Duke-street, Smithfield Tolput, Joshua, Upholsterer, &c. 115, Long-acre Torbut, Cabinet-maker, 12 , Red Lion-street Toulmin & Kerr, Upholstery Warehouse, 28, Broker- row, Finsbury Tucker, Thomas, Upholsterer, 24, Hatton- street Turley, Cabinet maker, Lamb's Conduit- street, Red Lion-square Turner and Hulloh, Cabinet-makers, 27 , Broker-row Turner, Smith, and Co. Upholsterers. 122. New Bond-street Turner, John, Cabinet-maker, 16, Titchfield street, Marybone Turnly, Chair-maker, Garden- row, near the Obelisk Walker, M. Upholsterer. 71 , Fleet- market Wallace, J. Upholder and Cabinet-maker, 5, Gr. Portland-str. Watson, Cabinet-maker, 21 , Wardour- street, Soho Watson, David, Upholsterer, 51 , Parliament- street Watson, H. Upholsterer, 14, Bridge- street, Westminster Weatherall, John, Upholsterer, 52, Dean-street, Soho Webb, William, Chair-manufacturer, Newington, Surry Westwood, M. Upholsterer, &c. 32, Crooked - lane White, John, Upholsterer, 3 , Storey's-gate, Westminster Widnell, Josiah, Carpet Manufacturer, Holborn-hill Wilkinson, W. and T. Upholstery Warehouse, 10, Broker- row Wilmot, Thomas, Cabinet- maker, 16, John-street, Oxford- street Wilson, Messrs. Cabinet- nak. and Upholsterers, 128, &376, Strand Wilson, T. Cabinet- maker, 20, King- street, Borough Winstanley, R. Upholsterer and Auctioneer, 10, Paternoster- row Woolley, G. Cabinet and Upholstery Manufact. 196, Piccadilly Wright, F. and W. Upholsterers, 410, Oxford- street. Wright, J. Upholsterer, 40, Great Russel- street Wyburd and Terry, Japan Chair Manufactory, City-road Yateman, Wm. Upholsterer, 12, St. Paul's Church-yard Printed by W.Smith, King Street, Seven Diats. SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES, ADDITIONAL TO THOSE OF THE FORMER LIST. ACKERMANN, Mr. Strand, 14 copies Allaway and Osmond, Reading Appleton, Mr. Hull Arrowsmith, James, Richmond, Yorkshire Botcherby, Robert, Darlington Brampton and Carrington, Kettering Brook, John, Leeds Cass, John, Scarborough Chapman and Son, Hull Claron, Mr. Upholsterer, Plymouth Colnaghi and Co, Cockspur-street, Charing-cross Cormel, Mr. Cabinet- maker Dallman, Mr. Cabinet maker Deacon, Mr. Cabinet- maker Dodd, Samuel, Nottingham Elliott, Thomas, Nottingham Elwick and Robinson, Wakefield Filde, Mr. Franklin, Mr. Chair- maker Freeman, John, Norwich Gardner, James, Chester Gilson, Mr. Cabinet- maker, Boston, Lincolnshire Gordon, Mr. Cabinet- maker Gregson and Bullon, Upholsterers, Liverpool Halley, G. H. Wakefield Hanson, John, Huddersfield Happerton, Mr. Cabinet- maker Harris, Mr. Chair- maker, Church-street, Lambeth Hicks, John, Hull Holliday, William, Burlington Kaye, John, Manchester Kebe, Mr. Cabinet- maker Kent, Mr. Cabinet- maker SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES. Kilrington , Mr. Cabinet - maker Knight, H. and C. Taunton Lees, Mr. Cabinet- maker Lovelace, Mr. Cabinet-maker Marshal, Mr. Cabinet-maker Mattison, Mr. Boston Mayer, Mr. Cabinet- maker Metcalf, John, Ripon Miller, Mr. Cabinet-maker M'Lellan and Sons, Mansfield Murray, Mr. Stamford Newham, Mr. Robert, Cabinet-maker, Stockton Newton and Son, Barton Umb. Nickson, Samuel, Chester Parker, John, Deal Peck, Thomas, Hull Price, Thomas, Cabinet- maker, Redcross-street, Southwark Relph, Mr. Cabinet-maker Richardby, Thomas, Durham Robinson, Mr. Brigg Russel, Mr. John, Cabinet-maker, Bristol Simpson, George, Witham, near Hull Smallwood, Mr. Cabinet- maker, No. 29, Chancery- lane Smith, Josiah, Dewsbury Southell and Wilson, Liverpool Sponge, William, Wellingborough Stewart, Matthew, Northshields Stockdale, Mr. Cabinet-maker Teal and Son, Leeds Ternly, Chair-maker, Garden-row, nearthe Obelisk, St. George's row. Thompson, John, Durham Thurston, Horatio, Beth Vincent, Samuel, Spalding Vinicomb, Mr. Cabinet-maker Vivian, Mr. Cabinet- maker Walton, Mr. Cabinet- maker Wass, Bright, Darlington Watkins, Cabinet- maker Watson, Mr. Cabinet- maker Williamson and Co. Market Raisen Williamson, Benjamin, Boston Wilson, George, Sunderland Wren and Cory, Preston CM PL.1. T.SheratonDe e ALCOVE BED H Published Sep 27. 1802. 1111 PL.2. 8 4 2 A 10 10 20 4 F1 . 20 B 60 130 T.SheratonDel 30 F4. 120 30 40 Scale of 10ths GEOMETRICAL LINES 10 60 750 Ivory or Scale Protractor 80 70 Brafs Protractor 90 100 90 70 8090 30 a Tangent Line 100 10 80 70 20 Sines F6. 110 Partagon 108 90 00 no 50 40 37 Poligons 70 130 F2 . Published Aug 25, 1803. 3 3 140 36 4 5 6 7 9 Line ofLines F3 . 26 10 150 60 160 B D 15 no 180 20 20 9 10 11 12 6 Hexagon 120 Heptagon 128 -Octagon 135 Nonagon 140 Decagon -Undecagon 147 Duodecagon 150 Degreesin their angles 144 7 30 Line ofSines Tangents 40 E Secants 40 8 F5. 50 60 70 809 36 32 30 60 70 8000 1 PL.2. FIG. 1 . H B EWICKED G N.1. T. Sheraton Del 3 N.3 . R FIG.3 . bod DI FIG. 5 . N.2 . Published Sep 27 1802. FIG. 2 . FIG 7. FIG.4 . N.4 . FOL & P 2 3 Drone Published Aug 25.1803 (ello) L3. B F m 1.Sheraton Del F4.

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T. Sheraton delim. PL13 FRENCH BED. Published Jan 24, 1803. J. Barlowp 1 T. Sheraton deli. PL.14. 1 DESIGN FORA BED. อออออ Published June 24th 1803. 20 000 J.Barlow scuis ) دال ( CAMP BED. PL.15. k E. Sheraton delin. cadada The plan of the bed folded in. Published Aug. 24,1803. k J.Barlowsculp

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T Sheraton.7 082. BUREAUBOOKCASE 000000000000000000000000000 …………… wi Published Dec, 15, 1802. 26.9. MOVING BOOKCASE ቅቀ PP FFFF HHHHH PL. 25 JBarlow sculp. 1 I PL26. T. SheratonDel. CABINET wwwwwww! Published June201803. J.CaldwallSe 1 PL.26 . T.Sheraton Del CABINET Published Oct 25.1802.

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Sheraton Del PL.31. PARLOUR CHAIRS 原 Published July 24, 1803. 1. Calderall Se Jo T. Sheraton del. 714 30 33 1212 345 TUSCAN ENTABLATURE and CAPITAL. 2.5 Zo 20 30 Module 40 9 8 7 10 50 60 Published Dec,20, 1802. th 32 Scale TUSCAN COLUM. 9 g PL.32. 30 30 J.Barlow sculp. PublishedMarch24,"1803IDarkenvmp€ . $1 8274 7% 3 51 60 412 10 N6 642 DORIC ENTABLATURE AND CAPITAL. 26 min. T. Sheraton delin. 10 20 30 Module 40 لسيليسا 50 60 372 3 No4 610 Module 20340 56 Published March 24,1803, DORIC COLUMN. WI1 J PL.33 Barlow sculp. JL IONIC NTABLATURE AND CAPITAL. 24% 29% 7 2½44 14 19 34 37 7/29 17 6

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PL.40. ALADY'S CYLINDER WRITING TABLE . I.Sheraton delin. 337 ad Published Feb 24,1803. Over L J.Barlow nlp, ANA MOAANA Sheraton PL. 41. 11314 Sheraton delin Finnnn wwwt B J.Barlow sculp. C.T. AA ) حال ( PL42. DRESSING TABLE T.Sheraton Del Bo DO! Ood Published Dec.6. 1802. CHINE 12393

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