French Revolution
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| These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including executions and repression during the [[Reign of Terror]], and [[French Revolutionary Wars|warfare involving every other major European power]] and culminated with the [[Napoleonic wars]], the restoration of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as [[modern era|modern]] [[France]] took shape laying the seeds of the [[International power]] it retains. | These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including executions and repression during the [[Reign of Terror]], and [[French Revolutionary Wars|warfare involving every other major European power]] and culminated with the [[Napoleonic wars]], the restoration of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as [[modern era|modern]] [[France]] took shape laying the seeds of the [[International power]] it retains. | ||
| - | Over the next 75 years, France would be governed, variously, as a [[republic]], a [[dictatorship]], a [[constitutional monarchy]], and no less than two different [[empire]]s before 1900.{{GFDL}} | + | Over the next 75 years, France would be governed, variously, as a [[republic]], a [[dictatorship]], a [[constitutional monarchy]], and no less than two different [[empire]]s before 1900. |
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| + | == Causes of the French Revolution == | ||
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| + | :''[[Causes of the French Revolution]]'' | ||
| + | Adherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' as being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included widespread [[famine]] and [[malnutrition]], due to rising bread prices (from a normal 8 [[Solidus (coin)|sous]] for a 4-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789), which increased the likelihood of [[disease]] and death, and intentional [[starvation]] in the most destitute segments of the population in the months immediately before the Revolution. The famine extended even to other parts of [[Europe]], and was not helped by a poor transportation infrastructure for bulk foods. (Recent research has also attributed the widespread famine to an [[El Niño]] effect following the [[Laki#1783 eruption|1783 Laki eruption]] in [[Iceland]], or colder climate of the [[Little Ice Age]] combined with France's failure to adopt the [[potato]] as a [[staple crop]].) | ||
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| + | Another cause was the fact that [[Louis XV]] fought many wars, bringing France to the verge of bankruptcy, and [[Louis XVI]] supported the colonists during the [[American Revolution]], exacerbating the precarious financial condition of the government. The national debt amounted to almost two billion [[livre tournois|livres]]. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the monarchy's military failures and ineptitude, and the lack of social services for war veterans. The inefficient and antiquated financial system was unable to manage the [[government debt|national debt]], something which was both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation. Another cause was the continued [[conspicuous consumption]] of the noble class, especially the court of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and [[Marie-Antoinette of France|Marie-Antoinette]] at [[Versailles]], despite the financial burden on the populace. High [[unemployment]] and high bread prices caused more money to be spent on food and less in other areas of the economy. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the largest landowner in the country, levied a tax on crops known as the ''dîme'' or [[tithe]]. While the ''dîme'' lessened the severity of the monarchy's tax increases, it worsened the plight of the poorest who faced a daily struggle with malnutrition. There was too little internal trade and too many customs barriers. | ||
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| + | There were also social and political factors, many of which involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideals. These included resentment of royal [[political absolutism|absolutism]]; resentment by the ambitious professional and mercantile classes towards noble privileges and dominance in public life, as many of these classes were familiar with the lives of their peers in commercial cities in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Great Britain]]; resentment by peasants, wage-earners, and the [[bourgeoisie]] toward the traditional [[manorialism|seigneurial]] privileges possessed by nobles; resentment of clerical advantage ([[anti-clericalism]]) and aspirations for [[freedom of religion]], resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy, continued hatred for Catholic control, and influence on institutions of all kinds by the large [[Protestantism|Protestant]] minorities; aspirations for liberty and (especially as the Revolution progressed) [[republicanism]]; and anger toward the King for firing [[Jacques Necker]] and [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|A.R.J. Turgot]] (among other financial advisors), who were popularly seen as representatives of the people. | ||
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Revision as of 18:02, 8 February 2010
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- The French Revolution is a major turning point in continental European history, from the age of monarchies to that of the bourgeoisie, and even of the masses, as the dominant political force. Richard Davenport-Hines has called Frankenstein gothic literature's most enduring parable of French revolutionary excess.
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of political and social revolution in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of democracy, citizenship, and inalienable rights.
These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including executions and repression during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power and culminated with the Napoleonic wars, the restoration of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape laying the seeds of the International power it retains.
Over the next 75 years, France would be governed, variously, as a republic, a dictatorship, a constitutional monarchy, and no less than two different empires before 1900.
Causes of the French Revolution
Adherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the Ancien Régime as being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included widespread famine and malnutrition, due to rising bread prices (from a normal 8 sous for a 4-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789), which increased the likelihood of disease and death, and intentional starvation in the most destitute segments of the population in the months immediately before the Revolution. The famine extended even to other parts of Europe, and was not helped by a poor transportation infrastructure for bulk foods. (Recent research has also attributed the widespread famine to an El Niño effect following the 1783 Laki eruption in Iceland, or colder climate of the Little Ice Age combined with France's failure to adopt the potato as a staple crop.)
Another cause was the fact that Louis XV fought many wars, bringing France to the verge of bankruptcy, and Louis XVI supported the colonists during the American Revolution, exacerbating the precarious financial condition of the government. The national debt amounted to almost two billion livres. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the monarchy's military failures and ineptitude, and the lack of social services for war veterans. The inefficient and antiquated financial system was unable to manage the national debt, something which was both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation. Another cause was the continued conspicuous consumption of the noble class, especially the court of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette at Versailles, despite the financial burden on the populace. High unemployment and high bread prices caused more money to be spent on food and less in other areas of the economy. The Roman Catholic Church, the largest landowner in the country, levied a tax on crops known as the dîme or tithe. While the dîme lessened the severity of the monarchy's tax increases, it worsened the plight of the poorest who faced a daily struggle with malnutrition. There was too little internal trade and too many customs barriers.
There were also social and political factors, many of which involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal absolutism; resentment by the ambitious professional and mercantile classes towards noble privileges and dominance in public life, as many of these classes were familiar with the lives of their peers in commercial cities in the Netherlands and Great Britain; resentment by peasants, wage-earners, and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by nobles; resentment of clerical advantage (anti-clericalism) and aspirations for freedom of religion, resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy, continued hatred for Catholic control, and influence on institutions of all kinds by the large Protestant minorities; aspirations for liberty and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism; and anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker and A.R.J. Turgot (among other financial advisors), who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.
