The Grotesque in Art and Literature  

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Das Groteske. Seine Gestaltung in Dichtung und Malerei (1957, Eng: The Grotesque in Art and Literature) is a work on grotesque art and literature by Wolfgang Kayser first published in 1957, translated in 1981 into English by Columbia University Press.

There is a RoRoRo edition with Goya's nail clipping demons of Se repulen on the cover.

Table of contents

Preface 9

The Problem 13 I The Grotesque: The Word and its Meaning 19 1. . . che oggi chiamano grottesche” 19 2. “Ce discours est bien grotesque” 24

II The Extension of the Meaning of Grotesque 29

1. “The so-called Hell Bruegel” 29 2. The “Chimeric” World of the Commedia dell'Arte 37 3. The “Spirit of the Grotesque” in the Drama of the Sturm und Drang 40

III The Grotesque in the Age of Romanticism 48

1. The Theory 48 2. Narrative Prose 59 3. The Drama 81

IV The Grotesque in the Nineteenth Century 100

1. Interpretation of the Grotesque in Esthetic Writings 100 2. The “Realistic” Grotesque (Keller, Vischer, Busch) 104 3. The Grotesque in “Realistic” Literature of Other Countries 121 V The Grotesque in the Twentieth Century 130 1. The Drama (Wedekind, Schnitzler, il teatro del grottesco) 130 2. The Authors of Tales of Terror Schauerliteratur, Meyrink, Kafka) 139 3. Morgenstern and the Verbal Grotesque 150 4. Thomas Mann 157 5. “Modern” Poetry and Dream Narration 161 6. Surrealism in Painting (pittura metafisica, Chirico, Tanguy, Dali, Max Ernst) 168 7. The Graphic Arts (Ensor, Kubin, Weber) 173

An Attempt to Define the Nature of the Grotesque 179

Notes 190

189 Notes I The Grotesque: The Word and Its Meaning 1. It is self-evident that the phenomenon is older than the name we assign to it, and that a complete history of the grotesque would have to deal with Chinese, Etruscan, Aztec, and Old Germanic art as well as with Greek (Aristophanes!) and other literatures. 2. L. Curtius, Die Wandmalerei Pompejis (1929), p. 138, refers to Asia Minor as the region in which the new fashion originated. 3. See L. Dussler, Signorelli (1927). Among earlier discussions of the ornamental grotesque, Ruskin’s Stones of Venice and several publications by Schmarsow are of special interest. 4. In his book Saule und Ornament: Studien zum Problem des Manierismus in den nordischen Sdulenbiichern und Vorlageblattern des 16. und 17. fahrhunderts (Stockholm, 1956), p. 113, Erik Forssman has recently taken exception to the traditional view that the scrollwork tech190 NOTES for pages 22-24 nique was developed in connection with the decoration of Fontainebleau (after 1530). Forssman believes the style to have evolved simultaneously at different places. 5. See P. Jessen, Der Ornamentstich (1920); idem, Meister des Ornamentstichs (4 vols., 1922—1924); R. Berliner, Ornamentale Vorlagebldtter des 15. his. 18. fahrhunderts (1925/26); Emmy Rosenbacher, “Die Entwicklung des deutschen Ornamentstichs von 1660 his 1735’’ (Dissertation, Flamburg, 1930); Felicitas Rothe, Das deutsche Akanthusornament des 17. Jahrhunderts (1938); P. Meyer, Das Ornament in der Kunstgeschichte (Zurich, 1944). While leafing through the ornamental engravings of the seventeenth century, the historian of the grotesque is struck by certain designs which seem to foreshadow the enlarged meaning the word was to gain in the following century. In the seventeenth century, the ornamental flower piece, which includes a detailed and often structurally important fore¬ ground, existed as an independent genre. We often encounter the motif of the dragon, from whose mouth the flower arabesque or grotesque is¬ sues. In a design of 1635 the Frenchman Francois Lefebure makes use of greatly reduced figures from the etchings of Callot. The two framing figures in the lower right and left are derived from Callot’s illustrations of the commedia dell’arte (see ill. 18 b in F. Rothe’s book). In an engrav¬ ing by J. Hagenbach and Daniel Buchenwald (illustrated on p. Ill of P. Jessen’s book) certain of Bosch’s fantastic creations have been used for the grotesque figures. 6. We anticipate an observation from the subsequent history of the meaning of grotesque, namely, the one that relates to its application to the dance, the terminology of which includes also the words “arabesque” and “moresque.” Whereas arabesque means only a figure of the solo dance—the horizontal position while standing on one leg, which is par¬ ticularly popular as a final figure, moresque refers to a special genre of the dance. The Morris Dancers were known in Europe since the fif¬ teenth century and have often been illustrated by contemporary sculptors and draftsmen (see the reliefs on the Goldenes Dach at Innsbruck and the carved Morris Dancers of Erasmus Grasser in Munich’s old City Hall). Here we have to do with an extremely eccentric stylized dance by several characters (whose costumes were all adorned with bells) com¬ peting for the prize of a “Queen.” Modern descriptions of this dance fre¬ quently resort to the word “grotesque”; and the modern grotesque dance with its only slightly curved line presumably harks back to the Morris Dancers. If the terms grotesque and arabesque, however, can be trans¬ ferred to the dance, and if the term moresque is ambiguous, language itself suggests the conclusion that the dance is essentially a dynamic use of ornaments within a given space. Or, to put it more cautiously, this is the essence of one kind of dance. For, from the very beginning, the orna¬ mental group dance goes hand in hand with a mimetic dance executed by individuals or couples. In the social dance of the twentieth century, 191 NOTES for pages 24-31 the ornamental group dance came to an end with the decease of the quadrille. Today, no prearranged order governs the couples and their movements. The only relation between the couples in the modern social dance consists in the fact that they are in each other’s way. Space is at a premium, and one looks for room in the corners, aisles, and between the tables. 7. "Stiicke aus den ersten Griinden der gesamten Weltweisheit” in Deutsche Literatur in Entwicklungsreihen, series Aufklarung, vol. 2, p. 217. 8. In making the painter Morto de Feltro responsible for the triumph of the ornamental style, Winckelmann follows Vasari. 9. Compare also W. von Wartburg’s entry in his etymological diction¬ ary of the French language; P. Knaak’s "Fiber den Gebrauch des Wortes ‘grotesque’” (Dissertation, Greifswald, 1913); and G. Matore’s article “En marge de Th. Gautier: ‘grotesque’ ” in the Festschrift for Mario Roques (Paris, 1946), pp. 217—225. 10. See also the entry “grotesque” in Furetiere’s edition of the Dictionnaire Universel (new edition, 1725). 11. Callot, like Goya, treated the themes "Caprices” and "Miseres de la Guerre" in cyclical form. It has been shown that his two versions of the “Temptation of St. Anthony” are indebted to Pieter Bruegel. 12. This quotation has not been collected by P. Knaak, who cites Diderot as having equated the grotesques with etres chimeriques. As far as I know, this phrase had only once before been related to grotesques, namely, in Desmarest de Saint-Sorlin’s Visionnaires (1637). 13. How vague the meaning of grotesque had become even within the realm of the fine arts is shown in later editions of van Mander’s Maler-Buch. In the Haarlem edition of 1604 it is only used in the strict sense of the word, whereas J. de Jongh, who was in charge of the edition of 1764, adds a comment (p. 63 A) which betrays the influence of the recently adopted French usage of the word. II The Extension of the Meaning of Grotesque 1. Klopstock and Winckelmann had undermined this principle from other angles. 2. The problem appears in almost all theoretical writings on art. In his Anmerhungen iiber das Theater Lenz observes that he thinks ten times more highly of the painter of caricatures than of the idealistic painter. Gerstenberg increased the problematic nature of the phenomenon by referring to the meeting of extremes “where often the slightest shift in thought makes the difference between beauty and caricature.” As early as 1742 Fielding sought to justify his use of the caricatural style in the preface to his novel Joseph Andrews. 3. In making the psychological effect—in correlation with the psycho¬ logical cause—a part of the definition of esthetic phenomena, Wieland 192 NOTES for pages 31-36 follows a trend of the time, since in his day the entire esthetic vocabulary was transformed or renewed in this sense (especially by Gerstenberg and Herder). 4. Shaftesbury, Characters (1737), III, 6: “ ’Tis the perfection of certain grotesque-painters to keep as far from nature as possible.” E. Burke, A Philosophical Inquiry into the Sublime and the Beautiful (1756): “All the designs ... of St. Anthony were rather a sort of odd, wild grotesques than anything capable of producing a serious passion.” 5. “Geschichte des weisen Danischmend” in Sdmtliche Werke (Leip¬ zig, 1854), IX, 15 f. 6. Max J. Friedlander, Pieter Bruegel (1921), quotes Bruegel’s con¬ temporary Guicciardini as calling the artist “grande imitatore della scienza et fantasia di Girolamo Bosch, onde n’ha anche acquistato il sopranome di secondo Girolamo Bosch” (p. 25). On fol. 133 b of his Schilder-Buch (Antwerp, 1617) van Mander observes that Bruegel “imi¬ tated the example of Jerome Bosch and produced similar horrors and drolleries, which caused many people to call him Pieter the Droll.” Sandrart, in his Teutsche Akademie (1665), gives a literal translation of van Mander’s statement. None of them uses the word “grotesque” in connection with Bosch or Bruegel. Concerning the drollery see M. Th. Bergenthal, "Elemente der Drolerie und ihre Beziehungen zur Literatur” (Dissertation, Bonn, 1936). 7. See W. Fraenger, Das lOOOjahrige Reich (1948); L. von Baldass, Hieronymus Bosch (1943); D. Bax, Ontcijvering van Jeroen Bosch (Den flaag, 1949); Clement Wertheim Aymes, Hieronymus Bosch: Eine Einfiihrung in seine geheime Symbolik (1957). 8. The relationship between Mannerism and Surrealism was pointed out by Dagobert Frey in a lecture entitled "Stil und Geist des Manierismus” (see the report in the magazine Kunstchronik [V, No. 9]). 9. It was printed in 1484 in Bosch’s residence in Hertogenbosch. The infernal vision of Tundalus, which belongs to the Irish visions, was pub¬ lished in Germany in Latin prose, and subsequently in two German metrical versions, in the middle of the twelfth century. The printed book was again written in prose. 10. The previously cited passage from the Apocalypse was meant to suggest a source of inspiration, and not a direct model for Bosch. 11. Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien (N.F. VIII, 1934), p. 148 f. The passage is approvingly quoted in G. Jedlicka’s Pieter Bruegel (second edition, 1946). Bruegel’s work is treated in the monographs of Ch. Bernard (Brussels, 1908), K. Pfister (1921), and M. J. Friedlander (1921). 12. Iam struck by an association that suggests itself to Jedlicka in his Pieter Bruegel. Speaking of the conglomeration of things which Mad Meg carries away, he remarks (p. 93): “This wild array of objects is a heightened expression of her state of mind (it reminds one of the fright¬ fully exaggerated description of Zus Biinzli’s sewing box).” This is a 193 NOTES for pages 36-40 surprising confirmation of our interpretation of Ziis’ character as that of an essentially demonic creature who changes into a “person” of the Seldwyla world only toward the end of the novella. 13. One of the first instances of the use of grotesque in connection with Bruegel’s art occurs in Florente Le Comte’s Cabinet des singularitez d’architecture, peinture ... (3 vols., Paris, 1699/1700). The passage (II, 217) is all the more important since it associates Bruegel with Callot as a painter of grotesques: “Bruegel particularly distinguished himself in the painting of grotesques, and one can say that he bequeathed to Callot all these comical and pleasing conceptions which pervade the gen¬ ius of that great man. It seems quite appropriate to say that if Bruegel was the Callot of his time, Callot was the Pieter Bruegel of his” (quoted from H.-W. von Lohneysen, Die altere niederlandische Malerei: Kiinstler und Kritiker, 1956, p. 148). One must not overlook, however, that gro¬ tesque is here used in the sense of burlesque, bizarre, ridiculous, and with reference to the genre paintings and figures of the two masters. The eighteenth century transfers grotesque from Bruegel’s genre paintings to his representations of hell. 14. Goya’s cycle, Desastres de la guena, for instance, is largely polem¬ ical in nature. Its true depth, however, is plumbed only (as far as I can see) by the grotesque perspective, which operates in quite a different way. In Hogarth’s graphic cycles, on the other hand, the topical element predominates to a point where the grotesque can only occasionally un¬ fold. In the famous “Gin Lane” (Ill. 13) the human figures and even the suicide in the window can be interpreted didactically. But the houses in the background, which are about to collapse, indicate that Hogarth uses a perspective that envisions the world as going to pieces. 15. This also provides the reason for reproaching Moliere for having introduced Harlequinades into his generically different plays. 16. The gaiety of the soul, i.e., its freedom and positive outlook on the world, formed the center of the Anacreontic writers’ esthetic and later found expression in the writings of Wieland as well as Goethe, when the latter concerns himself with the effect of art. See my essay “Goethes Auffassung von der Bedeutung der Kunst” in Zeitschrift Goethe (1954). 17. “That which is called caricature in painting, and which consists of the exaggeration of the figures, is actually the way in which I describe the habits of men.” 18. See E. Petraccone, La commedia dell’arte: storia, tecnica, scenari (Naples, 1927); M. Apollonio, Storia della commedia dell’arte (Rome, 1930); H. Kindermann, Die Commedia dell’arte und das deutsche Volkstheater (1938); La commedia dell’arte, special issue of the Rivista di studi teatrali (Nos. 9/10, Milan, 1954); O. Rommel, Harlekin, Hans Wurst und Truffaldino (1950). 19. J. Moser also mentions him in his Harlekin together with Teniers and Dou. 20. The grotesque as a Shakespearean category has been developed 194 NOTES for pages 40-44 by Wilson Knight (The Wheel of Fire, Cambridge, 1931) in connec¬ tion with King Lear. Concerning the use of the word “grotesque” and its meanings in Gerstenberg’s writings, see Klaus Gerth, "Studien zur Gerstenhergschen Poetik” (Dissertation, Gottingen, 1956), pp. 96-99. 21. It is characteristic that Sulzer, in treating the grotesque as an ornament, immediately moves toward a definition, which emphasizes its oneiric nature: “It surprises like a fantastic dream by the excessive fu¬ sion of such things as are not naturally connected with each other” QAllgemeine Theorie der schonen Kiinste, I [1771], p. 499). As the bibliog¬ raphy shows, the elaborate article in the second edition of 1792 is based on a thorough knowledge of the historical material. 22. From Lenz’ own review of Der neue Menoza in the Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeigen (1775), p. 459. 23. From the beginning of the fourteenth book of Dichtung und Wahrheit. 24. Der Flofmeister contains another characteristic example. A stu¬ dent wants to attend a performance of Lessing’s Minna von Barnhelm. He is so poor that he has to pawn his coat and is forced to wear his wolf’s fur in midsummer. When he steps out into the street, the dogs attack him and chase him through the streets, and he becomes completely disoriented in every sense of the word. The Lady Knicks, who tells the story, almost bursts with laughter. 25. Donna Diana and Gustav are marionette-like exaggerations of figures from Goethe’s Gotz. Lenz later wanted to rewrite the play and composed a new scene for the conclusion of the fourth act. K. Weinhold, the editor of Lenz’ posthumous work QDramatischer Nachlass [1884], p. 308) describes it as follows: “The poet was preoccupied with the hor¬ rible and grotesque. The Count is even more abhorrent, and the rapa¬ cious nature of the Countess asserts itself even more strongly than in the printed version.” 26. A limitation is placed on the grotesque by the fact that the pup¬ pet plays are performed by carved and mechanically operated figures, whereas the commedia dell’arte and the plays of the Sturm und Drang which are influenced by it, are represented by real actors. The puppet theatre constitutes a world of its own and is therefore (contrary to Mo¬ ser’s opinion) not grotesque. (It is grotesque perhaps only in the two extremes: in a completely naive illusion which succeeds in totally merg¬ ing with the real world, and in the expert and puppet player himself, for whom the puppets and their world have come to life upside down.) It is grotesque, however, when the figures of the commedia dell’arte and the plays which it influenced turn into mechanically operated dolls, and when the lifeless, mechanical sphere enters the animated and organic one and thereby alienates our world. The puppets of the marionette theatre would be grotesque only if they gained a life of their own and exchanged their world for ours. This is a motif which the Romantics (Hoffmann, Jean Paul, Amim) subsequently exploited in their gro195 NOTES for -pages 44-57 tesques. See E. Rapp, “Die Marionette in der deutschen Dichtung vom Sturm und Drang bis zur Romantik" (Dissertation, Munich, 1917). 27. See F. J. Schneider, Goethes Satyros und der Urfaust (1949), and the notes to volume IV of the Hamburg Goethe edition. 28. Goethe calls Savonarola “a grimacing, fantastic monster who juts into the bright world of the Renaissance like a Gothic gargoyle.” In the Schriften zur Kunst (Weimar edition, XLIX, 224), Goethe associates “animals, chimeras, grotesques, and other follies.” Ill The Grotesque in the Age of Romanticism 1. See A. W. Schlegel’s Werke, ed. Boecking, XI, 92. 2. Ibid., VIII, 31. Minor (Friedrich Schlegels Jugendschriften, frag¬ ment 379) assigns it to Friedrich Schlegel. However, the choice of words points to the speaker quoted above. 3. Fiber die Grotesken (Gottingen, 1791). Fiorillo’s treatise consti¬ tutes a reply to the highly subjective treatment of the problem in A. Riehm’s “Ober die Grotesken,” Monatsschrift der Akademie der Kiinste (1788). Compare also Stieglitz’ Fiber den Gebrauch der Grotes¬ ken und Arabesken (1790). See also the article on Fiorillo in the sec¬ ond edition of A. Zastrau’s Goethe-Handbuch (1955 and after). 4. A. W. Schlegel helped to maintain the contact between Fiorillo and Goethe, which had been established during the latter’s visit to Got¬ tingen. 5. In the ideas from the third volume of the Athendum it occurs twice in the sense in which it is used in the Gesprdch, i.e., within the ambience of “wit” (Witz) and “mythology.” See also W. Meinhardt, “Die Romantheorie der alteren Romantik unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung Friedrich Schlegels’’ (Dissertation, Gottingen, 1955). 6. The same concept of the grotesque, without the use of the word, dominates Schlegel’s interpretation of Goethe’s Braut von Korinth: “The moving aspect of it is heart-rending and yet seductive. Certain passages could almost be called burlesque, and precisely in them the terrible looms oppressively large” (No. 429). 7. “The grotesque porcelain figures of his pictorial wit that has been conscripted like an Imperial army” (No. 421). “I admit the gay confu¬ sion of sickly wit; but I defend it and boldly maintain that such gro¬ tesques and confessions are perhaps the only Romantic products of our unromantic age” (Gesprdch . . . ). 8. Paragraph 26: “Definitions of the Ridiculous.” Concerning the buildings of the Prince, which Goethe describes in his Italian Journey, see K. Lohmeyer’s article in the Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift (1942). 9. Hugo mainly uses the noun. His usage and the role of the gro tesque in his work were studied by Knaack, "Fiber den Gebrcmch des Wortes 'grotesque.' ” Matore’s remarks, in "En marge de Th. Gautier," on the other hand, are quite inadequate. 196 NOTES for 'pages 57-63 10. He uses Callot, “le Michel-Ange burlesque,” and the figures of the commedia dell’arte as examples. 11. In his essay on Shakespeare Hugo also arrives at a formula that echoes Gerstenberg: “Shakespeare a la tragedie, la comedie, l’hymne, la farce, le vaste rire divin, la terreur et l’horreur, et pour dire en un mot: le drame.” 12. This brings us to a motif which is so expressive and comprehen¬ sive that it became the leitmotif or the exclusive theme in numerous realizations of the grotesque: the infernal laughter, the abysmal, eccen¬ tric, terrifying laughter of Brunhilde and Tellheim. The more it is heard and understood not as a personal characteristic (for instance, of despair) but as the result of the onslaught of an alien, inhuman power, the more clearly it is grotesque. If someone laughs where laughter is out of place, a feeling of strangeness is apparent. But if somebody laughs against his will (or independent of it), this laughter can no longer be interpreted as an outgrowth of personality, but directly expresses the intrusion of an alien force. The example which Victor Hugo adduces (the ridiculed lover has a mangled face that seems to laugh constantly) is of that na¬ ture, and similar situations occur in many of E. T. A. Hoffmann’s sto¬ ries. Here is an example from his Elementargeist: “Strangely enough, the Major’s face seemed to cry when he laughed, which happened rarely. On the other hand, he seemed to laugh when he was overcome by a violent rage. But this laughter was so horrible that the oldest and most courageous fellows were terrified.” Every word in this description hits the mark, as far as the grotesqueness of the situation is concerned, since it depersonalizes the individual and makes him the agent of something strange and inhuman. At the beginning stands the description of the body, its limbs not matching and each of its parts given an inhuman attribute. 13. Compare W. Kohlschmidt, “Nihilismus der Romantik,” Neue Schweizer Rundschau (N. F. XXI, 1953/54). This essay is included in the volume Form und Innerlichkeit (Bern, 1955). Concerning the “transformations of Satan” and other themes and motifs of the “noc¬ turnal” side of Romanticism see Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony (New York, 1956), where German literature is only occasionally mentioned, however. 14. One could carry the argument further in the same direction. If the devil dispatched the satire, futility has found expression in a mytho¬ logical figure, whose role as “opponent” implies the existence of an “overseer.” But Bosch’s altarpieces teach us that the world can be por¬ trayed grotesquely in spite of the Christian frame. 15. The manner of speaking corresponds to the narrative mode in general. The narrator himself describes it as “motley and bizarre (kraus und bunt) and admits at the beginning of the sixth Night Watch: How much would I give to be able to narrate consistently and to the point like other honest Protestant poets and journalists. . . The confusion, 197 NOTES for pages 63-75 irregular progression, abruptness, digression, etc., are skillfully arranged and betray tbe author’s indebtedness to Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. The structure of the Nachtwachen is discussed in a dissertation by D. Nipperdey (Gottingen, 1954). 16. The expression “madhouse of life” is supplemented by the phrases Possentreihen (farcical actions), Fastnachtsspiel (carnival play), tragi¬ comedy, and—most frequently—puppet theatre. The identification with reality reaches the point where real events are described by the protago¬ nist as scenes from a puppet play. Over and over, the narrator uses the alienating device of portraying people as puppets mechanically operated by an unknown force (such as the judge in the third Night Watch). 17. The word occurs only in this passage. Its use gains significance by the fact that the narrator puts it in the mouth of the author, whom he introduces as a character: “The simple-minded doctoral candidate Richter . . . found nothing wrong with the grotesque pseudonym but considered it beautiful.” And it is characteristic of the meaning of the term, and of Jean Paul’s predilection for the grotesque, when the nar¬ rator continues, “Striking and unusual things were ordinary stuff for the young man.” 18. The name points toward a common source. In addition to Nachtgeschichte and Nachtstiick we frequently encounter the expression “Nachtgemalde" (nocturnal painting). When the history of the Nachtgeschichte is written, it will have to comprise the pictorial genre of the Night piece, which begins with Caravaggio. Night, in this compound, indicates the contrast to day and, as far as painting is concerned, the use of artificial sources of light. But night also signifies the ominous and terrifying element, the susceptibility to alien powers. In painting, the genre is well represented by Johann Heinrich Fiissli’s [Henry Fuseli] “Nightmare” (first version 1781, later version ca. 1815/20), and engrav¬ ings of it were widely disseminated (Ill. 17). See E. Beutler, “J. H. Fiissli,” Vortrdge und Schriften des Freien Deutschen Hochstifts, vol. II (1939). 19. The last paragraph does not imply an inclusion of the absurd but merely indicates Clara’s exclusion from that world. With her “gay and joyous spirit,” she finds the “quiet domestic happiness” that suits her nature—an objective statement which seems to imply more than joy and admiration. 20. Hoffmann and Wilhelm Hauff have treated a similar motif (the ape disguised as a human being) almost purely comically or satirically. All of the motifs (automaton, doll, disguised animal) show a predilec¬ tion for the grotesque. It would no longer be a joke if a host placed a life-sized doll on an easy chair in such a manner that the entering guests are deceived even for a single moment. The loss of confidence in the reliability of their orientation would be too great. 21. However, Hoffmann cannot altogether refrain from ever so briefly suggesting the possibility that Coppelius is the devil. After the 198 NOTES for 'pages 75-83 quarrel with Olympia, Spalanzani tells Nathanael: “Your eyes!—he stole them, the cursed, damned fellow!” Since we were expressly told that Coppelius did not deprive the boy of his eyes, one must assume that the deal with the telescope signifies an exchange of eyes and, as is implied by the religious overtones of the words “cursed” and “damned,” a kind of pact with the devil. Here we come upon a popular motif: the devil acquires something from an individual in order to implant it into a creature he wishes to mingle with society. But Hoffmann is content with the brief allusion. 22. It is not strictly enough observed in Der Sandmann. After the discovery of the mechanism in Ophelia, the narrator reports how the de¬ ceived society reacted to this experience: how people became terribly suspicious of other people, what absurd proofs they demanded from their lovers, and how excessively they yawned at the tea table in order not to arouse suspicion. As in the case of the pedantic housewife from Die Sylvesternacht, here, too, the social satire turns into a grotesque. But within the framework of a story of insanity the difference in style and mood constituted by this variety of the grotesque disturbs us, and the cold detachment and superiority of the altogether differently disposed narrator otherwise disrupts the stylistic unity. 23. The stories included in the Gespensterbuch, which A. Apel and F. Laun (Fr. A. Schulze) began editing in 1814, are often of a fairly high quality. Fouque was one of the subsequent editors of the publica¬ tion, which was later called Wunderbuch. Here Poe’s stories, which had originally been published in American magazines, appeared side by side with other tales of horror, and in Hawthorne and Washington Irving Poe had prominent predecessors. 24. The same usage is found in German; for instance, in the opening passage of Lenz’ Waldbruder: “Grotesquely piled up mountains.” 25. The New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1901) lists the earlier in¬ stances of grotesque but fails to quote Scott and Poe and the change of meaning they brought about. 26. Arthur H. Quinn, Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography (New York, 1941), comes to the conclusion that Poe uses the word “arabesque” to denote a “powerful imagination,” whereas “grotesque” signifies a “burlesque or satiric trait.” But Poe’s language does not seem to confirm this. 27. See H. H. Kiihnelt, Die Bedeutung E. A. Poes fiir die englische Literatur (Innsbruck, 1949); Pierre Cambiaire, The Influence of E. A. Poe in France (New York, 1927); Leon Lemonnier, E. Poe et les Conteurs Frangais (Paris, 1947). 28. It appears seven times on p. 365 of the fourth volume of his Geist der Goethezeit. 29. Nineteenth and twentieth century German usage frequently places grotesk alongside of kurios (odd, curious), especially by calling a mass of curiosities grotesque. One can easily see why this should be so. 199 NOTES for 'pages 83-98 The disorderly array of things that are odd in themselves gives the whole the appearance of an unfamiliar world. As long, however, as the curious aspect (which is seen as contrast) predominates, the strangeness is somewhat abated, and the word “grotesque” lacks its proper dimension.— The equation with kurios is also made in the almanac Grotesken, Satyren und Naivitdten, which Falk edited 1806/07 at Gotha. 30. For Amim himself the principal characters may have had a deeper meaning, since they were adaptations of figures created by the much-admired Gryphius, i.e., as far as he was concerned, expressions of the poetic roots of the Volksgeist. This does not place them, however, on a level with such legendary figures as Genoveva, Wanda, Libussa, etc. On the whole, the cultural-mythical play offers a fertile soil for the gro¬ tesque, as soon as it turns to the portrayal of the dark counterworld. In Zacharias Werner’s plays, to be sure, the pathos usually stands in the way of the grotesque; but the conjuration scene around the God Tschart in the fourth act of Brentano’s Griindung Prags (the picture of the God, which Brentano supplies in a footnote, affects us grotesquely) and the three strong men and the lemur scene in Goethe’s Faust, Part II, offer pertinent examples. 31. F. Schonemann (Ludwig Achim von Arnims geistige Entwicklung, 1912) feels that the expectation aroused by Korner’s observation is hardly fulfilled. But Schonemann merely hunts for parallels. Even so a number of connections between Halle und Jerusalem and Lenz’ dra¬ matic oeuvre are established. Flowever, they mean little compared with the obvious stylistic relationship, which Schonemann is unable to see or to handle methodologically. 32. For the history of the topos see E. Rapp, Die Marionette in der deutschen Dichtung vom Sturm und Drang his zur Romantik (1924); as well as R. Majut, Lehenshiihne und Marionette (1931); J. Obenauer, Die Prohlematik des asthetischen Menschen (1933); and E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953). 33. Alban Berg further enhances this effect in his opera Wozzeck, which offers a good example of the use of the grotesque in music. 34. K. Vietor, Georg Buchner (1949), p. 192. 35. Woyzeck and Marie are raised above the level of the other char¬ acters by the fact that they have a soul. They sense the vanity of human endeavor and suffer in themselves and the world. The portrayal of the suffering individual (leidende Kreatur') is structurally important for the drama, and its meaning enhances that of the tragicomic aspect, the struc¬ tural significance of which we are seeking to ascertain. 36. The relationship to the commedia dell’arte is discussed in W. Kupsch’s Woyzeck (1920). After the rejection of this claim by Hans Winkler (Georg Buchners Woyzeck [1925]) and R. Majut (Lebensbiihne und Marionette and Studien um Georg Buchner, 1932) scholars have paid very little attention to the thesis. 37. The first beginnings of a rehabilitation of the pun are to be 200 NOTES for pages 98-103 found in the sixteenth of Gerstenberg’s Briefe iiber die Merkwiirdigkeiten in der Literatur (on the occasion of Shakespeare). The classicists’ point of view, on the other hand, is characterized by the fact that the pun is regarded as pertaining to the lower style (as in Karl Philipp Moritz’ Vorlesungen iiber den Stil [1793]). Concerning the pun in the age of Romanticism prior to Brentano, especially in the writings of the brothers Schlegel, see G. Roethe, Brentanos Ponce de Leon, eine Sakularstudie QAbhandlungen der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottin¬ gen [1904]), pp. 14 ff. Brentano himself writes in the dedication of his comedy to the Duke of Aremberg: “I also remember your observation to the effect that the Germans are lacking both puns and the elegance of language. I did not then share your opinion, nor do I today. . . .” 38. Concerning the relationship between Leonce und Lena and the commedia dell’arte, see Renker, Georg Buchner und das Lustspiel der Romantik (1924) and the books by Kupsch and Majut. The latter’s Studien um Buchner also deals with the direct and indirect—by way of Tieck—relationships to Gozzi. 39. This scene and its relationship to Brentano and Hoffmann is fully treated in Majut’s Lebensbuhne und Marionette, pp. 125 ff. [“Leonce and Lena,” in an English version by Eric Bentley, is included in From the Modern Repertoire, Series Three, edited by Eric Bentley (Blooming¬ ton, Indiana, 1956), pp. 1—37.] IV The Grotesque in the Nineteenth Century 1. "Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik” in Jubildums-Ausgabe, XIII, 301 f., ed. H. Glockner. 2. The preclassical Phantastik has an equivalent in the postclassical one, when at the end of the Romanticist phase harmony and appropri¬ ateness, which had been unbalanced by the Romantic principle of inner subjectivity, are totally dissolved. The Crusades are for Llegel the “total adventure” of the Christian Middle Ages, and he describes it with cate¬ gories that strongly suggest the use of the word “grotesque” (which does not appear, however): “an adventure that was in itself disjointed and fantastic,” “contrasting elements linked without reconciliation,” “a decay of the spirit. . . .” 3. This explains why Hegel severs the concept of the grotesque from the etymological root of the word by designating the ornamental gro¬ tesques as arabesques, as was customary around 1800. Language did not follow his example. The designation of that kind of ornamental style as grotesque, which was never abandoned in art history, once again comes to the fore in the middle of the nineteenth century. Between the years 1851—1853 Ruskin’s Stones of Venice appeared, in which ornamental grotesques are thoroughly described and analyzed. Soon afterwards, Schmarsow did the same in Germany. 4. To be sure, Vischer, too, realized the close connection between gro201 NOTES for pages 103-125 tesque and caricature. But in his view the realistic side of the grotesque caricature is insignificant compared with the fantastic play of humor. The satiric intention disappears as the comic spirit is revealed. 5. See also Beate Krudewig, “Das Groteske in der Asthetik seit Kant” (Dissertation, Bonn, 1934). This study hardly progresses beyond the collection of the material. The inadequacy of the definitions given by the estheticians is stressed by R. Petsch in his article "Das Groteske” (Deutsche Literaturwissenschaft [1940]). Petsch’s own definition is equally vague, however: “The grotesque (is) the symbolic use of exag¬ geration with a view toward higher and profounder values, and espe¬ cially toward a world with greater tensions and depths than we find in daily life.” 6. In Theodor Storm’s works, on the other hand, the grotesque ap¬ pears in a harmless guise. In a letter to Erich Schmidt (Werke, ed. A. Koster, vol. VIII, p. 273), Storm states: “The morally or esthetically ugly, where it does not reach the level of terrible greatness, is artistically and poetically relevant only when reflected in a humorous mirror. This is the origin of what we call the grotesque.” 7. This type is well analyzed by Herman Meyer, Der Typus des Sonderlings in der deutschen Literatur (Amsterdam, 1943). My remarks on Keller and Raabe owe much to this book. The whole era is treated in Lee B. Jennings’ dissertation “The Grotesque Element in Post-romantic German Prose, 1832-1882” (Illinois, 1955). 8. Herman Meyer rightly refers to the beginnings of this trend in Jean Paul and E. T. A. Hoffmann (Der Typus des Sonderlings, p. 172). Schopenhauer asserts that “everything we touch resists because it has a will of its own.” 9. Quoted in Christel Lumpe, "Das Groteske im Werk Wilhelm Buschs” (Dissertation, Gottingen, 1953), to which I am indebted in sev¬ eral other respects. Compare also H. Cremer, “Die Bildergeschichten Wilhelm Buschs" (Dissertation, Munich, 1937), and M. Untermann, "Das Groteske hei Wedekind, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Morgenstern und Wilhelm Busch” (Dissertation, Konigsberg, 1929). 10. In the preface to his edition of The Complete Nonsense of Ed¬ ward Lear (New York, 1951), Holbrook Jackson writes (p. xxiii), “It may be that this fantastic world gratifies for him a desire which we all share to some extent, probably more than we are willing to admit, and which he seems to share, by anticipation, with the surrealists of our own time.” 11. See also L. B. Campbell, “The Grotesque in the Poetry of Rob¬ ert Browning” (Dissertation, Texas, 1907). 12. Our interpretation disagrees with that of Stender-Petersen (“Go¬ gol und die deutsche Romantik,” Euphorion, XXIV, 1922), who regards the story as the parody of a Romantic motif (the man without a shadow, the man without a mirror image). But this identity of motifs does not exist. Among other things, Gogol is concerned with the independent life 202 NOTES for 'pages 125-135 of the nose and the confusion of the city. Stender-Petersen needs his in¬ terpretation for the more comprehensive one to the effect that, with his parody, Gogol freed himself of the mental and literary dependence and the mistakes of his youth, for “between Tieck and Hoffmann on the one hand and Gogol on the other no tie of intimate understanding was pos¬ sible.” The mature Gogol, who is the father of Russian Realism, StenderPetersen claims, was “not in the least fantastically inclined,” “in a cer¬ tain sense very un-German; but very Russian.” Once again, the national bias obscures the comparative point of view. For the St. Petersburg no¬ vellas, too, contain realistic elements, which, as Stender-Petersen him¬ self admits, are ultimately derived from Hoffmann. And what if the later Realism was not altogether lacking in fantastic overtones? In that case, the idea of national characters would prove unsuitable and the category of Realism would break up. The topicalness of this very problem has considerably increased since 1922.—Modern scholarship, by the way, takes Gogol’s work to constitute the Russian variant of the picaresque novel. Historically, Narezhny’s novel The Russian Gil Bias or the Ad¬ ventures of Prince Tschistjakow (1814) forms a bridge to Dead Souls. See Miiller-Kamp’s essay “Wirkungen und Gegenwirkungen des westlichen Geistes in der russischen Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts,” Beitrage zur geistigen Vberlieferung (1947), pp. 350 ff. 13. From the translation of Bernard Guilbert Guerney (New York, 1948). 14. Letter of October 17, 1884. 15. I do not comment upon the narrative point of view, which is im¬ portant for the stylistic analysis of the grotesque. Note the confession of the narrator, “. . . this is decreed by the dark power that rules me.” V The Grotesque in the Twentieth Century 1. Erik Forssman, Saule und Ornament, p. 97. 2. For Wedekind see M. Untermann’s dissertation, “Das Groteske hei Wedekind . . . ,” as well as E. Schweizer, "Das Groteske und das Drama Wedekinds’’ (Dissertation, Tubingen, 1932). 3. Joachim Voigt, “Das Spiel im Spiel: Versuch einer Formbestimmung an Beispielen aus dem deutschen, englischen und spanischen Drama” (Dissertation, Gottingen, 1954). See also Dagobert Frey’s essay “Zuschauer und Biihne: Eine Untersuchung iiber das Realitatsproblem des Schauspiels” in Kunstwissenschaftliche Grundfragen (Wien, 1946). 4. Playwrights like the Irishman Synge (The Playboy of the Western World) and the Russian Andreev (Black Masks) have been suggested as models of the teatro del grottesco. Schnitzler’s influence would seem to be much greater. 5. Adriano Tilgher, Studi sid teatro contemporaneo (third edition, Rome, 1928), p. 119 f. 6. Luigi Pirandello, who graduated from Bonn University with a 203 NOTES for pages 135-145 philological thesis and worked temporarily as a literary historian, was undoubtedly familiar with German Romanticism. But this has little bear¬ ing on his work and even less on the grotesque theatre as such. 7. The dissolution of the conventional dramatic action—for even the “ageless drama” of the six persons consists of isolated situations—is analogous to the dissolution of the concept of personality. 8. Excerpt from Mark Musa’s manuscript translation of Six Characters in Search of an Author. 9. Pirandello’s plays are still occasionally performed in the postwar years. But Silvio d’Amico Q“Fortuna di Pirandello,” Rivista di Studi Teatrali, Milan, 1952) surely goes too far in claiming that modern Euro¬ pean and American playwrights have been strongly influenced by his compatriot. Lander MacClintock went so far as to call his book The Age of Pirandello (Bloomington, Ind., 1951). Recent literature on Pirandello includes articles by Mario Wandruszka (Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift, 1954) and Ulrich Leo (Romanische Forschungen, 1952). 10. O. Langen also published such literature (e.g., Meyrink). Elis firm subsequently merged with Georg Muller’s. Ernst Rowohlt and Kurt Wolff deserve also to be mentioned in this connection. Kurt Desch con¬ tinued the tradition after World War II by anthologizing Phantastische Erzahlungen and acquiring the rights to the works of H. H. Ewers. 11. In the texts, the word “grotesque” is often used in the shallower sense of bizarre or unusual, so in O. H. Schmitz’ novella Die Geliehte des Teufels from the Unheimliche Buch. 12. The title parodies Brentano’s and Amim’s famous collection of folksongs, Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1806-8). 13. In the story Die Pflanzen des Doktor Cinderella (The Plants of . . .) from Des deutschen Spiessers Wunderhorn, Meyrink uses ex¬ pressions like “infernal hand” and “demon.” But these are not interpreta¬ tions, and the first-person narrator limits them by adding an “as if” or “perhaps.” It is striking how, in this novella, the ornamental grotesque assumes an ominous life. The narrator wanders through a subterranean trellised garden: “To its very top the wall was covered with a net of deep red veins from which hundreds of staring eyes protruded like berries. . . . “In between glistened numerous eyeballs, which shot up in alternation with ghastly blackberry-like bulbs and slowly followed me with their glance as I passed. Eyes of all sizes and colors. From a crystal-clear iris to dead, sky-blue horse-eyes that are immobile. . . . “They all seemed to be parts detached from living bodies, put together with unbelievable skill, deprived of their human soul and reduced to the level of vegetal growth. “That they were alive I clearly recognized by throwing more light at their eyes, which immediately contracted. Who could be the infernal gardener who had planted this horrible culture?” The beginning of the alienation of the world and the Self is made 204 NOTES for pages 145-157 with the acquisition of a strange bronze, which plays the same part as Coppelius in Hoffmann’s Sandmann and the cat in Poe’s novella. Meyrink obviously continues the tradition of the nocturnal story. 14. Kasimir Edschmid, for instance, states in Die doppelkopfige Nymphe: Aufsdtze uber die Literatur und die Gegenwart (1920), p. 122, that “this form [that of Kafka’s narratives] is basically more natural and more significant than Meyrink’s. . . . Kafka is, of course, a minor talent insofar as the strength of his utterance is concerned. His slender stories and reflections draw a very narrow circle around Prague. But the unequivocalness is certainly effective.” 15. The first quotation is taken from G. Janouch, "Erinnerungen an Kafka,” in Die Neue Rundschau 62 (1951), 62; the second from an article by Erich Kahler in ibid., (1953), p. 37. 16. At the conclusion of this story the satiric tone fails to hide the narrator’s concern and his attempt to assign a meaning to the events. But the diaries demonstrate that—apparently for this very reason— Kafka remained dissatisfied even after having revised the story. In Dick¬ ens, by the way, Kafka discovered a similar attitude, “indifference under¬ neath a highly emotional manner.” (October 8, 1917). 17. See Leo Spitzer’s congenial study “Die groteske Gestaltungs- und Sprachkunst Christian Morgensterns” in the volume Motiv und Wort (1918). Schuchardt’s critique (“Christian Morgensterns groteske Gedichte und ihre Wurdigung durch Leo Spitzer,” Euphorion, 22, 1915) is of little value. See also K. Chr. Bry, “Morgenstern und seine Leser” (Hochland, 1925), V. Klemperer, "Christian Morgenstern und der Symbolismus” QZeitschrift fur Deutschkunde, 42, 1928), H. Schonfeld, "Morgensterns Grotesken” (Zeitschrift fur deutsche Bildung, VIII), and M. Untermann’s dissertation, “Das Groteske bei Wedekind. . . .” 18. Quoted by Schuchardt, "Christian Morgensterns groteske Gedichte," p. 640. 19. The following entry is equally characteristic of Morgenstem’s usage: “The planetary cultures of spiritual beings are the large gro¬ tesques of God. God’s material form is necessarily grotesque.” 20. In addition to languages he also “hates” numbers (as his gro¬ tesques imply): “At times I profoundly hate all numbers. The number is the most absurd falsification of reality man has ever brought about, and yet our modem world entirely relies on it.” This aphorism echoes Mauthner’s theses. 21. Linguistics and Literary History: Essays in Stylistics, I (Prince¬ ton, 1948), p. 17. 22. A wealth of material was compiled by Schneegans in his Geschichte der grotesken Satire (1894), which contains detailed analyses of the language of Rabelais and Fischart. Schneegans includes the time preceding Rabelais and pursues certain lines of development to the eighteenth century. 25. The playful linguistic nonsense of Morike’s Wispeliaden (Werke, 205 NOTES for -pages 157-161 ed. H. Maync, II, p. 435 ff.) *n some ways seems to anticipate Morgenstern. But the realm of the innocuously comical is rarely abandoned, since the language itself is not productive. Morike lets the poems be written by Liebmund Maria Wispel, whose pseudo-scientific pretension of wit is thus exposed to ridicule. 24. Morgenstern has found very few real successors. The reception of his work seems to have stimulated the growth of a literature of gro¬ tesque which lacks proper depth. The grotesques of Ringelnatz (Der arme Pilmartine, Die Walfische und die Fremde, etc.), for instance, fail to exhibit the wild growth of principles peculiar to language. Their gro¬ tesqueness consists in a few extrinsic formal elements, whose use is much more arbitrary than in Morgenstern. The prevailing fantastic quality partly subserves a stringent social satire and partly aims at producing a stunning and bizarrely comical effect. Judged by the impression they make on the reader, these grotesques do not engender a painful smile but, on the slender basis of an obvious critique, seek to provoke a roar¬ ing laughter. This laughter, however, tends to make its appearance only after the consumption of alcohol. 25. Jahresring 1955/56 (Stuttgart, 1955). 26. Not only the “German society degenerating into eccentricity” but nature itself is grotesque. At the very beginning of the novel we enter such realms when the narrator takes us into the home of Adrian Leverkiihn’s parents. Adrian’s father is fond of exactly those ominous, am¬ biguous, and extrahuman aspects of nature which cannot be rationally explained. Here, in the composer’s native environment, we encounter some of the leitmotifs that reappear throughout the book and repeatedly disrupt society. Through the use of words applicable to humans, the first reference to the strange butterfly prepares the reader for its reappear¬ ance in human form (a parallel to H. H. Ewers’ “spider” suggests itself): “One such butterfly, in transparent nudity, loving the duskiness of heavy leafage, was called Hetaera Esmeralda. Hetaera had on her wings only a dark spot of violet and rose; one could see nothing else of her, and when she flew, she was like a petal blown by the wind.” Another leitmotif which makes its first appearance at this point is a true Gespensterei (ghostly set of circumstances), a perfect grotesque, which the narrator himself designates as such: “I shall never forget the sight. The vessel of crystalization was three-quarters full of slightly muddy water—that is, a diluted water glass—and from the sandy bot¬ tom there strove upwards a grotesque little landscape of variously colored growths: a confused vegetation of blue, green, and brown shoots which reminded one of algae, mushrooms, attached polyps, also moss, then mussels, fruit pods, little trees or twigs from trees, here and there of limbs. It was the most remarkable sight I ever saw. . . . He showed us that these pathetic imitations of life were light-seeking, heliotropic, as science calls it. fie exposed the aquarium to the sunlight, shading three sides against it, and behold, toward that one pane through which the 206 NOTES for pages 161-168 light fell, thither straightway slanted the whole equivocal kith and kin: mushrooms, phallic polyp-stalks, little trees, algae, half-formed limbs. Indeed, they so yearned after warmth and joy that they actually clung to the pane and stuck fast there. “ ‘And even so they are dead,’ said Jonathan, and tears came in his eyes, while Adrian, as of course I saw, was shaken with suppressed laughter. “For my part, I must leave it to the reader’s judgment whether that sort of thing is matter for laughter or tears. But one thing I will say: such weirdnesses are exclusively Nature’s own affair, and particularly of nature arrogantly tempted by man. In the high-minded realms of the humaniora one is safe from such impish phenomena” (H. T. LowePorter’s translation). One clearly sees how, once again, the reader is made a secret ally of the actual narrator and how he is raised above the limited point of view of the narrator Zeitblom, who simply closes his eyes in the face of such freaks of nature. We are even in a position to smile about the sentimen¬ tal reaction of the old Leverkiihn. The perspectives embraced by both men turn out to be inadequate. But the most far-reaching and valid per¬ spective, that of Adrian Leverkiihn, leaves us completely at a loss. His suppressed laughter does not liberate but ominously confirms the eccen¬ tricity—in the depths of nature as well as man. 27. Die Struktur der modemen Lyrik (1956). Ramon Gomez de la Serna, Ismos (Buenos Aires, 1943). In the chapter on "Humorismo” Gomez de la Serna himself designates the grotesque as the main ingre¬ dient (p. 199). 28. Even in literature there existed a trend to raise the artificiality and the accidental aspect of creation to an esthetic principle. In an an¬ thology of his poems (Worttraume und schwarze Sterne, 1953), Hans Arp describes his Dada period and the creation of his “automatic” poems, which fit well into H. Friedrich’s poetics of modem poetry without, therefore, being in the least grotesque. 29. Oeuvres Completes, ed. Edm. Jaloux (Paris, 1938). Introduction, pp. 1 5, 24. Lautr6amont’s reference to Dante and Milton on p. 306. 30. If E. Jaloux proved that Lautreamont was stimulated by the to¬ rnan noir, Kandinsky’s dream landscapes can be compared with those which are found in German Gothic novels, which Kandinsky may not have known. With its emphasis on the alienation of man from nature (and on the estrangement of the Self), the German equivalent of the Gothic novel foreshadows the realization of the grotesque in the works of Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffmann, and Poe. A good example is found on p. 174 ff. of the first volume of Grosse’s Genius (1791). 31. Edited by H. Platschek (1956). The title of the collection would seem to be a little too pretentious, for the specimens contained in it only rarely betray a genuine literary talent. 32. Of the critical studies relevant to this section I mention Dieter 207 NOTES for pages 168-176 Wyss, Der Surrealismus (1950); Doris Wild, Moderne Malerei (1950); Alain Bosquet, Surrealismus 1924-1949 (1950); Will Grohmann, Bildende Kunst und Architektur (1953); W. Haftmann, Malerei im 20. Jahrhundert (1954); H. Sedlmayr, Die Revolution der modernen Kunst (1955); Walter Hess, Dokumente zum Verstandnis der modernen Ma¬ lerei (1956). 33. Chirico studied at the Munich Academy. In his writings he refers to Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. In Munich, hy the way, he was greatly impressed by his encounter with Kubin and his grotesque pictorial world. 34. Dali regards blood, decay, and excrement as the three central symbols of life. 35. With obvious reference to Dali, O.F. Beer ("Surrealismus und Psychoanalyse," Plan 1947, V, 329 ff.) says of the Surrealists who did not get beyond the first fifty pages of Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams: “A type of painting which limits itself to projecting half-understood dream symbols onto the canvas, without spiritually digesting them, can¬ not fulfill its artistic function. It represents a retrogression to an infantile level of thinking. It not only fails to aid the process of cultivation but actually impedes it, a phenomenon that constitutes a spiritual obscenity of a rare kind.” On p. 245 of her book, Moderne Malerei, Doris Wild reports the interpretation of Dali’s “Burning Giraffe” by the graphologist O. R. Schlag: “He referred to Indian symbolism, with which everybody interested in psychoanalysis must be familiar. In accordance with it, the woman or whore of the dead (Totenfrau or Totenhure') in the painting appears as the tragic impersonation of modem man, the drawer of whose heart and those of whose vitality are empty and open to all impressions. She feels her way in a blindfold manner, since her instincts are dead; strides gigantically through the disconsolately barren plain as through the world of cold intellect; supports herself on the five crutches (sym¬ bols of the five senses) by outer perceptions—prone to rationalism. The profile figure of the woman to the right symbolizes, as Daphne, the vitality of nature and plant growth. It roots in the ground and radiates her vitality into the cosmos. She has tom the pernicious snake out of her flesh and holds it up, liberated and enlightened. In her other hand she holds a jewel, which is her reward, like the jewel in the fairy tale, which has to be won with great effort.” The interpretation of the painted ab¬ surdities turns into a game; and, what is most absurd, one is supposed to acknowledge the “genuineness” of the painting in advance. 36. It was previously treated by Schongauer, Griinewald, Cranach, Bmegel, Callot, Jan Mandijn, Joos v. Craesbeeck, and many others. 37. “By forcing myself with unconditional surrender to portray what I felt most deeply, I merely yielded to a pitilessly dictating force against which my conscious Self often stubbornly defended itself. Only in the last few years I have come to see a little more clearly that it is a transi¬ tional realm, a twilight region, that wants to be adequately expressed by 208 NOTES for pages 176-185 me. ... In special moments of greater clarity I sometimes sensed the subterranean existence of some mysterious fluid that connects all living matter. ... I do not see the world in this manner, but notice these transformations in strange moments, when I seem to be only half awake.” (Kubin, "DammerungsweltenDie Kunst [1933], pp. 340 ff.). 38. “Fiber mein Traumerleben," in Kunstlerbekenntnisse, ed. P. Westheim (1924). 39. A complete list of all the books which Kubin illustrated is found in the authoritative book by Paul Raabe: Alfred Kubin: Leben, Werk, Wirkung (Hamburg, 1957). Ensor, too, illustrated works by Poe. Summary: Attempt to Define the Nature of the Grotesque 1. See J. Dausrich, “Antonius der Einsiedel: Eine legendarisch-ikonographische Studie,” Archiv fur christliche Kunst (1901 and 1902). 2. Schopenhauer (Werke, ed. Hiibscher, second edition, 1948, VI, 2581) wrote about the animals: “It is that volition, which is also essential to our being, which, at this point, makes its appearance . . . more strongly developed and so clearly profiled that it borders on the monstrous and grotesque.” 3. A passage from the third act of Brentano’s Griindung Prags (Gesammelte Schriften, ed. Christian Brentano, VI, 236) reads as follows: primislaus: . . . the swallows of the traitors. It’s therefore that I called the bat by name. With uncertain flight, like the conscience Of the new thief, nature in it Is tom between good and evil. It follows the night, follows the trace of light. It is not mouse alone or bird But mousebird, too, and steals Qmaust) in the dark. It blindly plunges into its death, where treasures sparkle. Thus treason, tormented like a ghost, Hovers between evil advice and deed, As the fat mouse QSpecbmaus') hovers between day and night. And he whose hair she tears with her claws Should think himself warned of the evil path. 4. See A. Schone, "Interpretationen zur dichterischen Gestaltung des Wahnsinns in der deutschen Eiteratur" (Dissertation, Munster, 1952). 5. Concerning the German impersonal pronoun see the HusserlFestschrift (1929). K. Ph. Moritz QMagazin zur Erfahrungsseelenkunde [1783], I, 1, 105) notes “that by means of the impersonal ‘it’ we seek to express that which exceeds the sphere of our concepts and which lan¬ guage cannot name.” 209

Index 211

Index Abderiten, Die (Wieland), 67 Abenteuer in der Sylvesternacht (Hoffmann), 69-70, 105 Alberti, Rafael: poem quoted, 163-164 Alchemy: in Bruegel’s paintings, 36 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 122 Alienation: in Poe and Hoffmann, 79; in Arnim, 88; in Busch, 116; in modem poetry, 163; in Sur¬ realistic painting, 170 Alraune (Ewers), 140 Ammann, Paul: three meanings of “It,” 185 Andere Seite, Die (Kubin), 141 Andreev, Leonid, 203 Animals: as grotesque motif, 115, 183; in Morgenstern, 152; Schopenhauer on, 209. See also ape, bat, gargoyle, vermin Anmerkungen iiber das Theater (Lenz), 192 Antiquity: Renaissance and gro¬ tesques of, 21; Hugo on gro¬ tesques of, 57 Antonelli, Luigi: teatro del grottesco playwright, 135 211 INDEX Ape: disguised as human being, 198 Appelmanner, Die (Arnim), 88 Apocalypse: as source of grotesque, 33, 181. See also John (St.), Visio S. Tundali Apollinaire, Guillaume [pseud.'), 162; originates the term Surreal¬ ism, 166; Oneirocritique, 166; admires Chirico, 171 Arabesque: relation to grotesque and moresque, 22—23; Goethe on grotesque and, 49, 50; F. Schlegel on grotesque and, 49— 51; Poe’s distinction between grotesque and, 76—81 passim; as source of Scott’s definition of grotesque, 77; Hegel on gro¬ tesque and, 100—101; in the dance, 191 Aragon, Louis, 164 Architecture: Hegel on, 101 Arcimboldo, Giuseppe: and Dali, 171 Ariosto, Lodovico, 27, 51 Amim, Achim von: Isabella von Agypten, 82; Die Kronenwachter, 82—83; Die Majoratsherren, 83-85; Halle und Jerusalem, 85—88; and Lenz, 89; and Sur¬ realism, 168; and marionettes, 195; and Gryphius, 200; men¬ tioned, 116, 204 Arp, Hans, 207; poems quoted, 165 Arsenic and Old Lace (grotesque film), 10 Artist: as grotesque figure in Hoff¬ mann, 74, 105-106; in Keller, 108; in Raabe, 110 “Asiatic” style: and Morgenstern, 155 As You Like It (Shakespeare), 96-97, 98 Asthetik (Hartmann), 17 Asthetik (Hegel), 101 — 102 212 Asthetik (Vischer), 102—103 Athenaum: F. Schlegel’s fragments in, 49, 52-53 Auerbach, Erich: Mimesis, 35; on realism in Middle Ages, 35 Auch Einer (Vischer), 111—113, 114 Aus dem Leben eines bekannten Mannes (Hoffmann), 69—70, 106 Auswahl aus dies Teufels Papieren (Jean Paul), 64 Automata: in Hoffmann, 73-74; in Jean Paul, 106; in Meyrink, 145; in Chirico, 170. See also mechanisms, wax dolls Automatism: of inanimate objects in Lautreamont, 166; as gro¬ tesque motif, 183. See also Tiicke des Objekts Ball: as grotesque motif in Busch, Poe, and Amim, 116. See also danse macabre Balli di Sfessania (Callot), 39-40 Barlach, Ernst, 177 Bat: as grotesque motif, 183 Bau, Der (Kafka), 150 Baudelaire, Charles, 139, 162 Beauty and the Beast (fairy tale): Hugo on, 58 Beckett, Samuel, 72 Beitrage zu einer Kritik der Sprache (Mauthner), 155 Berg, Alban: AVozzeck,” 10, 200 Bergerac, Cyrano de, 27 Besessenen, Die (Ewers), 140, 142 Bestiality, energetic: Busch’s idea of, 114 Betrachtungen eines Unpolitischen (Mann), 158 Black Cat, The (Poe), 79, 80 Blake, William: poem quoted in Dr. Faustus, 159-160; writes fantastic grotesques, 173 INDEX Blonde Eckbert, Der (Tieck), 81 Bonaventura Qpseud.): Nachtwachen, 59—64; use of Hamlet, 61—62; and Jean Paul’s Komet, 65—68 passim; mentioned, 72, 91, 119, 141, 145, 157, 177, 187 Bosch, Hieronymus: “Millen¬ nium,” 32—34; Strobl on, 139— 140; influence on Ernst, 172; influence on Ensor and fantastic grotesque, 175; influence on Kubin, 176; mentioned, 9, 11, 18, 69, 70, 72, 84, 88, 121, 125, 148, 173, 181, 185, 191, 193 Boutet, Frederic, 141 Braut von Korinth, Die (Goethe), 196 Brentano, Clemens: Die Griindungs Prags, 88, 200, quoted, 209; Ponce de Leon, 95-98; and Shakespeare, 96—98; mentioned, 200, 201, 204 Bresdin, Rodolphe, 173 Breton, Andre: and Surrealism, 168, 169 Brief uber den Roman (F. Schlegel), 48, 50, 52 Briefe uber die Merkwiirdigkeiten der Literatur (Gerstenberg), 40- 41 Browning, Robert, 202 Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder (Peasant Bruegel): paints familiar world, 34-37; “Proverbs,” 34-35; "Dulle Griet," 35—36; influence on Hoffmann, 69-71; Korff on, 82-83; Strobl on, 139-140; in¬ fluence on Ensor and fantastic grotesque, 175; mentioned, 9, 18, 30, 32, 40, 84, 88, 121, 148, 173, 193, 194 Bruegel, Pieter, the Younger (Hell Bruegel), 30, 32, 40, 83, 187 Bruegel, Pieter: grandson of Peasant Bruegel, 32 Buchenwald, Daniel, 191 Buchner, Georg, 157; Lenz, 89, Woyzeck, 90-95; Dantons Tod, 91, 135; Leonce und Lena, 95- 99; and Wedekind, 131, 133; Tieck, Gozzi and, 201; Brentano, Hoffmann and, 201 Buddenbrooks (Mann), 158 Burke, Edmund, 31, 193 Burlesk-Komische, Das: relation to the grotesque, 103 “Burning Giraffe” (Dali), 178 Busch, Wilhelm, 11, 113-121, 128, 181; Eispeter, 117-119; Eduards Traum, 119—121; pointed objects in, 183 Calderon de la Barca, Pedro: in¬ fluence on playwrights, 88 Callot, Jacques: Balli di Sfessania, 39—40; influence on Hoffmann, 68—71, 73; influence on Ensor and fantastic grotesque, 175; mentioned, 30, 31, 92, 116, 173, 177, 191 Cammermeir, Simon, 23 Capriccio: use by Callot and Goya, 178, 186, 187, 192 Caprice: See capriccio Caprichos (Goya), 18 Caravaggio, Michelangelo da: originator of pictorial night piece, 198 Caricature: in 18th-century esthe¬ tics, 30, 37, 41; in Callot, 39; in Klinger, 44—45; in Satyros, 46; F. Schlegel on, 53; in Woy¬ zeck, 92; in Friihlings Erwachen, 131; in Mann, 158; Gersten¬ berg on, 192. See also satire "Carmina burana” (Orff), 10 Carra, Carlo, 170 Carroll, Lewis Qpseud.'): precursor of Surrealism, 122 213 INDEX Castle of Otranto (Walpole), 76- 77 Cavacchioli, Enrico, 135 Cellini, Benvenuto, 182 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de: Don Quixote, mentioned, 27, 30, 50, 51, 128, 129, 174 Chagall, Marc, 122; illustrates Dead Souls, 129 Chants de Maldoror (Lautreamont), 166 Chiarelli, Luigi: teatro del grottesco playwright, 135; La maschera e il volto, 135—136 Chinoiserie: in Keller, 29-30, 108 Chirico, Giorgio di: influenced by Kubin, 174; influences Weber, 177; influenced by Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, 208; men¬ tioned, 169, 170, 171, 178 Christmas Carol, A (Dickens), 123 Chronik der Sperlingsgasse (Raabe), 109-110 City: as grotesque motif, 67 Cold grotesque: in Bruegel, 35; in Kafka, et al., 148 Comedy: Diirrenmatt on, 11; Gerstenberg on, 41; Hugo on, 57; Romantic, 95-99; defined by Schiller, 95. See also tragicom¬ edy, commedia dell’arte Comic, the: and grotesque, 38, 118; Hugo on, 59 Commedia dell’arte: Callot as illus¬ trator of, 39-40; Lenz and, 44; Klinger and, 45; Goethe and, 46; Hoffmann and, 70; Buchner and, 93, 98; Brentano and, 97; Jean Paul and, 106; Wedekind and, 131; mentioned, 28, 41, 54. See also comedy, tragicom¬ edy Corneille, Pierre, 27 Cousin, Victor: influence on Hugo, 56 214 Cranach, Lucas, 208 Critical-paranoiac method: and Dali, 171 Cromwell (Hugo): preface to, 56- 57 Crusades: Hegel on, 201 Dali, Salvador: and Surrealism, 169, 171—172; “Burning Gi¬ raffe,” 178, 208 Dance: arabesque and moresque in, 191 D’Annunzio, Gabriele: Morgenstem’s parody of, 150 Danse macabre: in Arnim, 43; in Poe, 78. See also ball, party Dante, Alighieri, 24, 27, 166 Dantons Tod (Buchner), 91 Daumier, Honore, 173, 177 Dauthendey, Max, 131 Dead Souls (Gogol), 126—129 De architectura (Vitmvius), 20 Decker, Paul, 24 Dehmel, Richard, 131; on tragi¬ comedy, 54 Delaune, Etienne, 23 "Dem Ausgang zu” (Arp), quoted, 165 Demonic characters: Jean Paul’s satanic humorist, 58, 59, 64, 65—67, 91, 116; in Hoffmann, 106; in Keller, 108 Demonism of inanimate objects: See Tiicke des Objekts Desastres de la Guerra (Goya), 18, 194 Des deutschen Spiessers Wunderhorn (Meyrink), 142 Detective story: Poe as inventor of, 80 Diary of a Madman (Gogol), 124 Dickens, Charles: A Christmas Carol, 123; The Pickwick Pa¬ pers, 123; and Kafka, 146, 205: mentioned, 128, 174 INDEX Diderot, Denis: on commedia dell’arte, 28; Schiller on Jacques et la Fataliste, 50; mentioned, 30, 38, 51, 192 Dr. Faustus (Mann), 158, 159— 161, 183 Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Steven¬ son), 143 Don Quixote (Cervantes), 27, 30, 50, 51, 128, 129, 174 Dostoevsky, Fedor, 146 Dou, Gerard, 194 Double: motif in Keller, 14; in Meyrink, 145. See also Self, di¬ vision of Dreams of painters: See sogni del pittori Drei gerechten Kammacher, Die (Keller), 13-16, 29, 63, 72, 108-109, 110,186 “Dxdle Griet” (Bruegel the Elder), 34, 36 Diirer, Albrecht: on sogni dei pittori, 22 Diirrenmatt, Friedrich: on gro¬ tesque and tragicomedy, 11-12 Edschmid, Kasimir: on Kafka, 205 Eduards Traum (Busch), 119— 121, 131 Egmont (Goethe), 96 Eispeter (Busch), 117-119 Ekkehart, Master: and Morgenstern, 155 Elementargeist, Der (Hoffmann), 197 Elixiere des Teufels, Die (Hoff¬ mann), 69 Eluard, Paul, 164, 168 Ensor, James: influence on other artists, 174; technique of, 175, and fantastic grotesque, 175; and Weber, 177; on grotesque as action, 184 Erdgeist (Wedekind), 132 Ernst, Max, 169, 172 Estrangement: See alienation Evenings on the Farm near Dikanka (Gogol), 124 Ewers, Hanns Heinz, 206; oeuvre, 140; Die Spinne, 142—143 Expressionism, 131; and Surreal¬ ism, 168 Fantastic grotesque: idea of, 173 Fantastic symbolism: Hegel on, 101 Feinkomische, Das: Hartmann on, 17 Faust, Part II (Goetbe), 47, 88, 182, 200 Feltre, Morto da: promotes the grotesque, 25, 192 Fielding, Henry: Joseph Andrews, 30; Tom Jones, 42; on carica¬ ture, 192 Films: grotesque in, 10 Fiorillo, Johann Dominicus: in¬ fluence on Tieck and Wackenroder, 49; collaborates with A. W. Schlegel, 50 Fischart, Johann, 17, 24, 25, 35, 55, 63, 122, 166, 187, 205; Geschichtsklittening, quoted, 156; and Rabelais, 156-157 Fledermause (Meyrink), 141 Flogel, Karl Friedrich, 17, 55, 103 Flower piece, ornamental, 191 Fouque, Friedrich de la Motte, 199 Franz Sternhalds Wanderungen (Tieck), 49-50 Freud, Sigmund, 208; and teatro del grottesco, 135; and Surreal¬ ism, 169; and Dali, 171 Friedrich, Hugo: on modem poetry, 161 Fruhlings Erwachen (Wedekind), 131-132 Fuseli, Henry (= Fiissli, Johann Heinrich), 88; “The Night¬ mare,” 198 215 INDEX “Galgenlieder” (Morgenstem), 151, 154 Garcia Lorca, Jose: Romance sonambulo, 165 Gargantua (Rabelais), 156 Gargoyle, 57 Geisterseber, Der (Schiller), 76 Gekreuzigte Tannhauser und andere Grotesken, Der (Ewers), 140 Gemalde, Die (Tieck), 81—82 Genius (Grosse), 76, 207 Genoveva (Tieck), 88 George, Stefan, 131 Gerstenberg, Henrich Wilhelm von: Briefe iiber die Merkwiirdigkeiten der Literatur, 40—41; on Shakespeare, 40-41; on cari¬ cature, 192; echoed by Hugo, 197; on puns, 200; mentioned, 57, 193 Geschichte der grotesken Satire (Schneegans), 104 Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen (Flogel), 17, 55 Geschichtsklitterung (Fischart), 156 Gespensterbuch (Meyrink), 141 Gesprdch iiber die Poesie (F. Schlegel), 48, 50, 51-52, 55 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 21 Giotto di Bondone, 24 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: on Raphael, 20, 49, 101; on Lenz, 41; Satyros, 46, 72; Die Mitschuldigen, 46—47; "Von Arabesken,” 49, 51; on absurdity of life, 60; Werthers Leiden, 60, 61; Faust, Part II, 88, 182, 200; Egmont, Schiller on, 96; WestOstlicher Divan, 47, quoted, 187—188; Gotz von Berlichingen as model for Lenz, 195; Die Braut von Korinth, F. Schlegel on, 196; mentioned, 50, 51, 95, 180, 194 216 Gogol, Nicolai, 65; The Overcoat, 124-125; The Nose, 125; Dead Souls, 125-129; interpretation of, 202 Goldene Topf, Der (Hoffmann), 71-72 Golem, Der (Meyrink), 144-145 Gomez de la Serna, Ramon: on humorism, 161, 207 Gothic: English literature both grotesque and, 77 Gothic novel, 76, 77; and German Schicksalsdrama, 141; in Ger¬ many, 207 Gottsched, Johann Christoph, 25, 31, 40 Gotz von Berlichingen (Goethe), 195 Goya y Lucientes, Francisco de: Gaprichos, 18; Desastres de la Guerra, 18, 194; and Hoffmann, 73; and Amim, 84; and Kubin, 176; mentioned, 9, 88, 148, 173, 177 Gozzi, Carlo: and Brentano, 97; and Buchner, 200 Grandville (pseud.]), 173 Grasser, Erasmus: Morris dancers in Munich, 191 Grauen, Das (Ewers), 140 Grimm, Brothers, 122 Grimmelshausen, Johann Jakob Christoffel von, 23, 157 Grosse, Karl: Genius, 76, 207 Grotesk-Komische, das: Moser on, 17; Flogel on, 17, and Jean Paul, 55 “Grotesques” (Ravel), 10, 17 Griindungs Prags, Die (Brentano), 88 Grime Kakadu, Der (Schnitzler), 134-135 Griinewald, Mathias Nidhart, 208 Gryphius, Andreas, 80; model for Amim, 200 INDEX Guicciardini, Francesco: on Brue¬ gel, 193 Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 30 Hagenbach, J., 191 Halle und Jerusalem (Arnim), 86-88, 89 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 61-62 Hanswurst: v. Harlequin in Mo¬ ser, 37; in Nachtwachen, 62 Harlekin oder die Verteidigung des Grotesk-Komischen (Moser), 29, 37-38, 55,194 Harlequin: See Hanswurst Hartmann, Nicolai: two genres of the comic, 17 Hauff, Wilhelm, 198 Hauptmann, Gerhart, 131 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 199 Hazlitt, William: English litera¬ ture as Gothic and grotesque, 77 Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm: on ara¬ besque and grotesque, 100, 200; Asthetik, 101, 102; on architec¬ ture, 101; on Crusades, 201 Heine, Heinrich, 174; on Isabella von Agypten, 82 Hell Bruegel: See Bruegel, Pieter, the Younger Herder, Johann Gottlieb, 46, 192 Hernani (Hugo), 78 Herr Kortiim, Der (Kluge), 128 Herzensergiessungen eines kunstliebenden Klosterbruders (Wackenroder), 49 Hesiod: Hegel on, 102 Hochwald, Der (Stifter), 104 Hoffmann, E. T. A.: Phantasiestiicke in Callots Manier, 40, 68; Abenteuer in der Sylvesternacht, 69—70, 105; Die Elixiere des Teufels, 69; Aus dem Leben eines bekannten Mannes, 69; Der goldene Toff, 70, 71; Der Sandmann, 72—76; Das Majorat, 78; Scott on, 77; possible influ¬ ence on Poe, 76—78; three types of grotesque figures, 105-106; influence on Gogol, 124, 202; Der Elementargeist, 197; ape as human being, 198; influence on Leonce und Lena, 201; men¬ tioned, 17, 18, 27, 40, 92, 104, 127, 140, 141, 148, 175, 185, 195 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 131 Hofmeister, Der (Lenz), 42, 43- 44, 89 Hogarth, William, 38, 173; “Gin Lane,” 194 Holz, Amo, 131 Horror, literature of: See Schauerliteratur Hugo, Victor: preface to Crom¬ well, 28, 56-59; Hernani, 78; on Shakespeare, 58, 197; men¬ tioned, 70, 98, 161 Humor: v. grotesque in Moser, 41; Jean Paul’s definition of, 54—56; and the grotesque in Busch and Vischer, 114; pictorial and liter¬ ary, 128—129; in tales of terror, 139. See also Satanic humor, laughter Humorism: Gomez de la Serna’s definition of, 167 Idealists: Buchner and Lenz on, 90 Iffland, Wilhelm, 95 Ignaz Denner (Hoffmann), 124 Immermann, Karl Leberecht, 88 In Phantas Schloss (Morgenstem), 151 Insanity: See madness Irving, Washington, 199 Isabella von Agypten (Arnim), 82 “It,” three meanings of, 185 Italian Journey (Goethe), 180 Jacques et la Eataliste (Diderot), 50-51 Jaloux, Edmond, 166 217 INDEX Jam(n)itzer, Christoph, 23 Jean Paul (pseud.): Vorschule der Asthetik, 9-10, 54-55, 56, 121; F. Schlegel on, 51, 53, 81, 196; as writer of grotesques, 51-53, 56; and annihilating idea of hu¬ mor, 54—56; and Satanic humor¬ ist, 58, 59, 64, 65-67, 91, 116; Auswahl aus des Teufels Papieren, 64; Der Komet oder Ni¬ kolaus Markgraf, 64-68; men¬ tioned, 27, 40, 104, 106, 109, 111, 121, 141, 157, 195 Johannot, Tony, 174 John (Apostle), St.: Apocalypse quoted, 34 Josefine, die Sangerin (Kafka), 150 Joseph Andrews (Fielding), 30 Joyce, James, 122, 157 Jung, Carl Gustav, 169 Kafka, Franz: diaries, 148; Der Landarzt, 148, 149; Die Verwandlung, 149; Josefine, die Sangerin, 150; Der Bau, 150; and Dickens, 146, 205; Edschmid on, 205; mentioned, 72, 184 Kandinsky, Wassily: “Wasser” quoted, 167 Keller, Gottfried: Die drei gerechten Kammacher, 13-16, 108— 109; Die Leute von Seldwyla, 105; Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe, 107—108; Der Schmied seines Glucks, 107—108; men¬ tioned, 11, 17, 31, 72, 115, 147, 148, 186. See also Ziis Biinzli Keller, Johann Fleinrich, 23 Kerner, Justinus, 110 Kilian, Lukas, 23, 25 Kinder von Finkenrode, Die (Raabe), 110 King Lear (Shakespeare), 61 218 Klausenburg, Die (Tieck), 105 Klee, Paul: influenced by Kubin, 174, 183 Klinger, Friedrich, 93; Sturm und Drang, 44-45 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, 192 Kluge, Kurt: Der Herr Kortiim, 128 Knorpelgroteske, 23; in Dali and Tanguy, 171 Knorpel-Ornamentik, 23 Komet oder Nikolaus Markgraf, Der (Jean Paul), 64—68 Komik: See humor Kotzebue, August von, 95 Kreuz an der Ostsee (Werner), 88 Kronenwdchter, Die (Amim), 82— 83 Kubin, Alfred: Die andere Seite, 141; and Kafka, 146; influence on Klee and Chirico, 174, 208, 209; point of view, 175-177; mentioned, 183, 184 Kulturmythisches Drama, 88, 200 Ladykillers (grotesque film), 10 Landarzt, Der (Kafka), 148, 149 Landscape: grotesque, in Dr. Faustus, 11, 140; Runge on, 52 Laughter: in reception of grotesque in Wieland, 31, 179, 186-187; as expression of pain in Bitch ner, 91; as criterion of grotesque in Vischer, 103. See also humor, satanic humor Laune: See capriccio Lautreamont, comte de (Isidore Ducasse), 170; Chants de Maldoror, 166; Poesies, 166 Lear, Edward: Nonsense Alpha¬ bets, 122; Nonsense Botany, 122; Nonsense Pictures and Rhymes, 122; compared with Morgenstem, 151 Lefebure, Francois, 191 Lenbach, Franz von, 114 INDEX Lenz, Reinhold Michael: on com¬ edy, 41; Der neue Menoza, 41— 42, 89; Der Hofmeister, 42-43, 89, 185; influence on Arnim, 88-89, 200; in Buchner’s no¬ vella, 89—90; Anmerkungen uber das Theater, 192; Der Waldhruder, 199; mentioned, 72, 93, 95, 133, 146 Lenz (Buchner), 89—90 Leonce und Lena (Buchner), 95, 98-99, 157 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: trans¬ lates Diderot, 28; on tragicom¬ edy, 54; Minna von Barnhelm, 187, 195 Leute von Seldwyla, Die (Keller), 105, 106 Lewis, Matthew (Monk), 166 Liebestrank, Der (Wedekind), 133