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The Spirit of the Laws

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 23:09:12 GMT

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'''''The Spirit of Laws''''' (French: ''L'esprit des lois'') is a [[treatise]] on [[political theory]] first published anonymously by [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu]] in [[1748]] with the help of [[Claudine Guérin de Tencin]]. Originally published anonymously partly because Montesquieu's works were subject to censorship, its influence outside of France was aided by its rapid translation into other languages. In 1750 Thomas Nugent published the first English translation. In 1751 the [[Catholic Church]] added ''L'esprit des loix'' to its [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]] ("List of Prohibited Books"). Yet Montesquieu's political treatise had an enormous influence on the work of many others, most notably: [[Catherine the Great]], who produced ''[[Nakaz]]'' (''Instruction''); the [[Founding Fathers of the United States#Constitutional Convention delegates|Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States Constitution]]; and [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], who applied Montesquieu's methods to a study of [[United States|American]] society, in ''[[Democracy in America]]''.

Montesquieu spent nearly twenty years researching and writing ''L'esprit des lois'' (''The Spirit of the Laws''), covering a wide range of topics in politics, the law, sociology, and anthropology and providing more than 3,000 citations. In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates constitutionalism and the separation of powers, the abolition of slavery, the preservation of civil liberties and the rule of law, and the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community.

==See also==
*[[Comparative Law]]
*[[Democracy]]
*[[Letter and spirit of the law]]
*[[Rule of law]]
*[[Mutual Liberty]]

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List of fictitious people

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 22:35:54 GMT

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This article '''lists the fictitious people''', i.e., [[:Category:Nonexistent people|nonexistent people]], which, unlike [[Fictional character|fictional people]], are those somebody has claimed to actually exist. Usually this is done as a [[practical joke]] or [[hoax]], but sometimes fictitious people are 'created' as part of a [[fraud]]. Sometimes the line between the two categories is blurred, e.g., as in the case of [[Abdul Alhazred]]. A [[pseudonym]] may also be considered by some to be a "fictitious person", although this is not the correct definition.

==Hoaxes==
* [[Abdul Alhazred]], author of the equally fictitious [[Necronomicon]] created by [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. His pseudobiography was published in ''[[Necronomicon#Fictional history|A History of the Necronomicon]]''.
* [[William Ashbless]], a 19th-century fictitious poet and adventurer
* Bilitis, nonexistent Ancient Greek poet. Supposed author of ''[[The Songs of Bilitis]]'', a collection of erotic poetry "discovered" by [[Pierre Louÿs]].
* [[Harry Q. Bovik]], eternal [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]] computer science researcher
* [[George P. Burdell]], eternal [[Georgia Institute of Technology|Georgia Tech]] student
* [[Eddie Burrup]], fake Australian aboriginal painter
* [[Allegra Coleman]], nonexistent supermodel
* [[Helen Demidenko]], nonexistent Ukrainian author, created by Australian writer [[Helen Darville]]
* [[Anthony Godby Johnson]], (probably) fictitious author of ''Rock and a Hard Place : One Boy's Triumphant Story''
* [[Kilroy Was Here|Kilroy]], a nonexistent legendary [[World War II]] [[US]] army major who inspired millions during the war and became part of American [[popular culture]].
* [[Ern Malley]], nonexistent Australian poet, created by Australian poets [[James McAuley]] and [[Harold Stewart]]
* [[Piotr Zak]], nonexistent Polish composer, created for a [[BBC]] programme by [[Hans Keller]] and others
* [[Georg Paul Thomann]], nonexistent Austrian conceptual artist, created by art group [[monochrom]] to represent Austria at the 2002 [[Sao Paulo Art Biennial]]. Georg Paul Thomann is featured in [[RE/Search]]'s "Pranks 2" book.

==Pseudonyms==
This list includes [[pseudonym]]s supplied with a biography suggesting the existence of a person distinct from the actual person with the pseudonym in question, often with the purpose of a hoax.

See also [[Collective pseudonym]]s (many of them were not claimed as "real" people).

* [[Nicolas Bourbaki]], a 20th century French mathematician with credited publications
* [[Kozma Prutkov]], nonexistent Russian writer
* [[Lemony Snicket]], pseudonym of [[Daniel Handler]] and character in Handler's (or "Snicket's") ''[[Series of Unfortunate Events]]''
* [[Gerald Wiley]], pseudonym used by comedy performer and writer [[Ronnie Barker]] so that his sketches would be judged on merit.

==Arts & entertainment==
* David J. Broadfoot, the Member of Parliament from [[Kicking Horse Pass]], representing the [[New Apathetic Party]], a character played by Canadian comedian [[Dave Broadfoot]].
* [[Dame Edna Everage]], a character played by Australian comedian Barry Humphries
* [[Borat Sagdiyev]], a fictitious Kazakhstani journalist created by [[Sacha Baron Cohen]], see also [[Ali G]] and [[Bruno (character)|Bruno]]
* [[Rusty Shackelford]], pseudonym of [[Dale Gribble]] from the animated program ''[[King of the Hill]]''.
* [[Sven]] - occasional stand in for Samantha, above, on BBC radio comedy ''I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue''.
* [[Gerald Bostock]], writer of the lyrics for the [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]] album ''[[Thick as a Brick]]''.
* [[Ponsonby Britt]] executive producer of [[The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show]]. In the credits of [[George of the Jungle]], a later offering from the same production company, "Britt" had been promoted to "Ponsonby Britt OBE" (recipient of the Order of the British Empire).
* [[Margaret B. Jones]], fictitious half [[White people|white]], half [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] [[foster child]] and [[Bloods]] gang member in [[South Los Angeles|South Central Los Angeles]]
* [[Andreas Karavis]], nonexistent Greek poet
* [[Donald Kaufman]], fictional brother of Adaptation writer Charlie Kaufman, gained "writing credits" and co-won an Oscar
* [[Kobuk]], nonexistent [[Inuit]] author and playwright (invented by the [[Austria]]n comedian [[Helmut Qualtinger]])
* [[Wanda Koolmatrie]], nonexistent Australian aboriginal author
* [[JT LeRoy]], fictional American author and literary celebrity.
* [[David Manning (writer)|David Manning]], a nonexistent [[film critic]] created by [[Sony Corporation]].
* [[S. Morgenstern]], fictional author from the equally fictional country of Florin
* [[Ossian]], Irish bard created by [[James Macpherson]] in the 18th century
* [[Nat Tate]], fake 1950's American artist
* [[B. Traven]], adventure novelist
* [[Mrs. Trellis of North Wales]] - regular correspondent to BBC radio comedy ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue]]''
* [[Kilgore Trout]] Fake author of "Venus on the Halfshell". Created by Kurt Vonnegut. Book written by Philip Jose Farmer
* [[Hajime Yadate]], credited as the creator of most of the [[anime]] works of [[Japan]]ese [[animation studio]] [[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]].
* [[Zbigniew Preisner|Van den Budenmayer]], nonexistent Dutch composer believed to be real by some filmgoers even after they were told the truth

==Academia==
* [[Jára da Cimrman]], fictional Czech [[genius]] and [[polymath]]
* Honorable [[J. Fortescue]], fake US physician
* Dr. [[Irving Joshua Matrix]], [[numerologist]], invented by [[Martin Gardner]]
* [[Josiah Carberry]], professor of psychoceramics at [[Brown University]]

== Politics ==

* [[Jakob Maria Mierscheid]], a member of the German Bundestag. Despite not existing, Mierscheid has an official Parliamentary biography (complete with portrait) and has given his name to a bridge spanning the River [[Spree]] and to the [[Mierscheid Law]], which has been used to predict voting patterns in the former West Germany.

==Sports==
* [[Sidd Finch]], nonexistent baseball prodigy created by [[George Plimpton]] for an [[April Fool's Day]] prank.
* [http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=rovell%2F040623 Chimezie Kudu], nonexistent 7-foot-11 basketball player ([http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=rovell/040624 ESPN.com readers' responses])
* [[Taro Tsujimoto]], nonexistent Japanese hockey player selected by [[Buffalo Sabres]] general manager [[Punch Imlach]] in the [[1974 NHL Amateur Draft|1974 NHL Draft]]

==Religion==
*[[Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Aftah]], non-existent leader and Mahdi of the extinct Fathite/Aftahiyya/Fathiyya Shia Muslim sect.

==Unclassified==
:''Please help in putting them into appropriate sections.''

* [[Carl Brandon Society|Carl Brandon]], a fictional fan of color, for whom the Carl Brandon Society was named
* [[Betty Crocker]], fake spokesperson for The Washburn Crosby Company of Minneapolis and its successor company, [[General Mills]]
* [[Kodee Kennings]], nonexistent 8-year-old girl whose letters were published in the ''[[Daily Egyptian]]'', a student newspaper for [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]
* [[Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre]], volumetric namesake.
* Andrew MacDonald, a pseudonym for [[William Luther Pierce]], [[white supremacist]] and author of ''[[The Turner Diaries]]''
* [[Kaycee Nicole]], fictional [[leukemia]] sufferer and Internet personality
* [[Henry Root]], fictitious correspondent, and Henry Raddick (possibly the same person)
* [[H. Rochester Sneath]], nonexistent headmaster of the nonexistent Selhurst School
* [[Udo of Aachen]], fictional monk
* [[Edna Welthorpe]], nonexistent morality campaigner
* [[Araki Yasusada]], fake Hiroshima survivor and author

==References==
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Le Canard enchaîné

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 21:32:26 GMT

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'''''Le Canard enchaîné''''' (English: ''The Chained Duck'' or ''The Chained Paper'') is a [[satirical]] newspaper published weekly in France. Founded in 1915, it features [[investigative journalism]] and leaks from sources inside the French government, the French political world and the French business world, as well as a large number of jokes and humorous cartoons. It has a circulation of 446,000. It is one of the most respected and oldest French newspapers, despite its often satiric tone.

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Frédéric Pagès

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 21:30:39 GMT

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'''Frédéric Pagès''' (born 1950) is a French journalist noted for his work with the satirical weekly, ''[[Le Canard enchaîné]]''.

Pagès studied philosophy at University and worked as high school teacher until 1985.

At ''Le Canard enchaîné'', his humorous columns included ''Le Journal de Xavière T'', a spoof diary of [[Xavière Tiberi]], the wife of [[Jean Tiberi]], then mayor of Paris, and, from December 2007, ''Le Journal de Carla B'', a spoof diary of [[Carla Bruni]], wife of French President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]].

The last of these was the subject of controversy when Karl Laske and Laurent Valdiguié published a book ''Vrai Canard'', which alleged that the spoof diary was written by Pierre Charon, a political advisor to the French government, and used to pass on political messages. The editor of ''Le Canard enchaîné'', [[Michel Gaillard]], quickly debunked this claim by naming Frédéric Pagès as the writer.

Pagès wrote two books of [[spoof]] philosophy under the name Jean-Baptiste Botul:

* [[La Vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant]]
* [[Nietzsche ou le démon de midi]]

He founded the "Association of Friends of Jean-Baptiste Botul" to promote this [[fictious]] philosopher and his school of "Botulism". In 2010, the hoax caught out the well-known philosopher [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]], whose book ''De la guerre en philosophie'' used Botul as the primary source for his attack on Kant.

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Éditions Mille et Une Nuits

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 21:24:03 GMT

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Les éditions '''Mille et une nuits''' sont une filiale des [[Fayard (édition)|Éditions Fayard]] ([[Paris]]). Créées en septembre [[1993]] par Maurizio Medico, [[Nata Rampazzo]] et Luc Dubos, et d'abord calquées sur le modèle italien des "Mille Lire" (petits livres à mille lires), elles ont publié des classiques libres de droits, le premier étant l'ouvrage d'[[Épicure]], ''[[Propos sur le bonheur]]''.

Cette petite collection s’est rapidement affirmée par l’originalité de son format ({{unité|10.5|cm}} × {{unité|15|cm}}) adapté aux contraintes de la vie urbaine (trajet, attente…) et la qualité de sa politique éditoriale. L'édition des Mille et une nuits est très populaire grâce à son prix accessible et ses choix éditoriaux sont audacieux (la maison a réédité plusieurs auteurs anarchistes et de nombreux idéologues méconnus).

Depuis leur fondation, cette filiale de Fayard a depuis élargi son marché en proposant une collection de littérature et d'essais grand format (dont le best-seller fut ''[[La Face cachée du Monde]]'', de [[Pierre Péan]] et [[Philippe Cohen]]). Parmi ses auteurs les plus édités on compte notamment le politologue et historien des idées [[Pierre-André Taguieff]].

Les éditions Mille et une nuits sont dirigées par Sandrine Palussière.

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Jean Verame

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 21:08:55 GMT

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'''Jean Vérame''' est un plasticien français, d'origine belge, vivant en France, né en [[1936]] à [[Gand]] ([[Belgique]])

Peintre et sculpteur, Jean Vérame situe son travail à la dimension du paysage et développe un art nomade à l'échelle de la planète.

== Biographie ==
1965 Extrait et colorie un millier de pierres d'une plage du [[Cap Ferrat]] (Alpes Maritimes).

1967 Dresse des pyramides de schistes dans les montagnes de Rute (Alpes Maritimes) et des monticules de galets dans le Tech-Ceret (Pyrénées Orientales).

1968 Dispose des Tumuli de pierre au Mouton d'Anou (Alpes Maritimes) et des Roches cristallines dans le Massif du Castelet (Alpes Maritimes).

1970/74 Peint sur un kilomètre les parois, les plages rocheuses et les galets du lit d'une rivière des Cévennes hors de l'eau comme sous l'eau.

1976 Peintures sur deux kilomètres et demi le long de la côte du Désert des Agriates, en Corse, marque les roches de signes.

1978 Déplace et dresse 17 pierres marquées de bleu dans un Canyon à Amarillo, au [[Texas]]. Exploration du Désert du [[Sinaï]].

1979 Peint et marque de signes sept pierres granitiques dressées dans un pré en Normandie.

1980/1981 Peint dans le désert du Sinaï, en [[Égypte]], sur le plateau de Hallaoui, douze zones réparties sur {{unité|80|km|2}}}}.

1984 Réalise un travail multidimensionnel, à des échelles diverses sur un site granitique à {{unité|1200|mètres}} d'altitude, dans l'Anti-Atlas, près de [[Tafraout]], au [[Maroc]]. Ce site s'appelle communément les "rochers bleus".

1985 Peint la toile qui couvre le Musée d'Orsay lors du ravalement de la façade.

1987 Installe et dresse quarante sept pierres au pied des Alpilles, à Saint Rémy de Provence.

1989 Travail multidimensionnel dans le massif du [[Tibesti]] (Nord du [[Tchad]]) .

1992 Quatre bateaux peints en Bretagne, répartis sur l'étang de l'Abbaye Saint Maurice.

1995 Présentation de mille bronzes au musée de l'Homme à Paris. Lancé de ces mille bronzes en cinq vols successifs dans les sables du Sahara.

1996 Réalisation d'un volume en vitrail éclairé de l'intérieur et inauguré le 4 mars devant l'Hôtel de ville de Meaux.

2003 Exposition personnelle : Vittoria, Espagne: "Prise de terre et Prise de ciel"
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Kobe Matthys

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:33:40 GMT

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Born 1970. Artist. 1991 – 1995 MA [[fine arts]] at [[Städelschule für Bildende Künste]] DE. In 1992 founded [[Agency]], an agency for [[quasi]] creations. He conducts a long term [[research]] on the practices of [[reapropriation]] and the [[public domain]].
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Give me liberty or give me death

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:28:24 GMT

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'''"Give me Liberty, or give me Death!"''' is a famous quotation attributed to [[Patrick Henry]] from a speech he made in a court hearing on March 23, 1775, at [[Saint John's Church, Richmond, Virginia|St. John's Church]] in [[Richmond, Virginia]], and is credited with having swung the balance in convincing the [[Virginia]] [[House of Burgesses]] to pass a resolution delivering the Virginia troops to the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. Among the delegates to the convention were future US Presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[George Washington]]. Reportedly, those in attendance, upon hearing the speech, shouted, "To arms! To arms!"

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Health care

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:23:23 GMT

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'''Health care''' (often '''healthcare''' in British English), is the treatment and management of illnesses of the elderly, and the preservation of [[health]] through services offered by the [[Medicine|medical]], [[Dentistry|dental]], complementary and [[alternative medicine]], [[pharmaceutical]], clinical sciences (''in vitro'' diagnostics), [[nursing]], and [[allied health professions]].
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Japanese rock garden

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:19:31 GMT

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The '''Japanese [[rock gardens]]''' or '''"dry landscape"''' gardens, often called '''"Zen gardens"''' were influenced mainly by [[Zen Buddhism]] and can be found at Zen temples of [[meditation]].

Japanese gardens are a living work of art in which the plants and trees are ever changing with the seasons. As they grow and mature, they are constantly sculpted to maintain and enhance the overall experience; hence, a Japanese garden is never the same and never really finished.
The underlying structure of a Japanese garden is determined by the architecture; that is, the framework of enduring elements such as buildings, verandas and terraces, paths, tsukiyama (artificial hills), and stone compositions. Over time, it is only as good as the careful maintenance that it receives by those skilled in the art of training and pruning. Part of the art is to keep the garden almost static, like a painting.

Karesansui gardens can be extremely [[abstract art|abstract]] and represent (miniature) landscapes also called "mind-scapes".
This Buddhist preferred way to express cosmic beauty in worldly environments is inextricable from Zen Buddhism.
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Brotherhood

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:08:47 GMT

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# The state of being brothers or a brother.
# An association for any purpose, as a society of monks; a fraternity.
# The whole body of persons engaged in the same business, -- especially those of the same profession; as, the legal or medical brotherhood.
# Persons, and, poetically, things, of a like kind.
#: ''A '''brotherhood''' of venerable trees.'' - [[William Wordsworth]].
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Fraternity

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 20:08:41 GMT

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# The quality of being [[brother]]s; [[brother]]liness.
# A group of people [[associated]] for a common purpose.
# A [[social]] [[organization]] of [[male]] [[student]]s at a [[college]] or [[university]]; usually identified by [[Greek]] letters.

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De la guerre en philosophie

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:55:01 GMT

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''[[De la guerre en philosophie]]'' (2010) [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]].

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La Vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:54:41 GMT

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''[[La vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant]]'' is a book by [[Jean-Baptiste Botul]] ([[Éditions Mille et Une Nuits]], [[1999]]). It is a [[literary mystification]] on the supposed [[sexual life]] of the German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]], written by [[Frédéric Pagès]].

In his [[2010]] work ''[[De la guerre en philosophie]]'', [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]] cites very seriously from this work and builds its argumentation around it.

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Botul

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:50:44 GMT

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'''Jean-Baptiste Botul''' est un [[personnage de fiction|écrivain fictif]] créé par [[Frédéric Pagès]] et ses amis de l'Association des Amis de Jean-Baptiste Botul (A2JB2).

== Historique du canular ==
Créé en 1995, le canular a débuté par l'ouvrage ''[[La vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant]]'', avant de se poursuivre dans d'autres œuvres.

Dans son ouvrage à paraître le 10 février 2010 chez Grasset, intitulé ''[[De la guerre en philosophie]]'', [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]] cite très sérieusement à l'appui de son argumentation ''[[La Vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant]]'' par Jean-Baptiste Botul ([[Éditions Mille et Une Nuits]], [[1999]]). L'hebdomadaire ''[[Télérama]]'' s'était apparement aussi laissé prendre au canular (ou avait feint de se laisser mystifier) le mois précédent.

Alors que Jean-Baptiste Botul est généralement présenté comme un personnage imaginaire, Frédéric Pagès (qui en est l'inventeur) fait toutefois observer qu'« il n'a jamais été établi explicitement que Botul n'a pas existé (...) ».

== Biographie fictive ==
Jean-Baptiste Botul ({{Date|15|août|1896}}, [[Lairière]] - 15 août [[1947]], Lairière) est présenté comme un [[philosophe]] [[France|français]] originaire du village de Lairière, dans l'[[Aude (département)|Aude]]. Se réclamant de la [[tradition orale]], il n'a laissé aucun ouvrage écrit officiel. Des liaisons avec [[Marthe Richard]] (à laquelle il s'était fiancé), avec [[Marie Bonaparte]], avec [[Simone de Beauvoir]] et — semble-t-il — [[Lou Andreas-Salomé]] lui ont été attribuées. Ses multiples pérégrinations l'auraient amené à rencontrer [[Emiliano Zapata|Zapata]], [[Pancho Villa]], [[Henri Désiré Landru]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[André Malraux]], [[Jean Cocteau]], [[Jean Giraudoux]] & [[François Le Lionnais]].

==A2JB2==
L'''association des Amis de Jean-Baptiste Botul'' a contribué à faire publier des œuvres permettant de découvrir le « botulisme », c'est-à-dire la pensée du personnage. Les œuvres botulistes consistent en des retranscriptions d'interventions orales ou dans des fragments de correspondance. On notera parmi elles la plus célèbre ''La Vie sexuelle d'[[Emmanuel Kant]]'', puis ''[[Henri Désiré Landru|Landru]], Précurseur du [[Féminisme]]'' , enfin ''[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] et le Démon de Midi'' et ''La Métaphysique du mou''. Tous ces ouvrages sont parus aux [[Éditions Mille et une nuits]].
Spécialiste de [[Emmanuel Kant|Kant]], Botul se distingue notamment par son interprétation de la morale kantienne. Il défend l'idée que pour Kant le philosophe ne se reproduit pas par pénétration mais par retrait. Une rue du village de [[Pomy (Aude)|Pomy]], dans l'Aude, porte son nom.

=== Le NoDuBo ===
Le NoDuBo, ou Noyau dur botulien, est constitué par les fondateurs de l'''Association des Amis de Jean-Baptiste Botul'', en 1995. Il comprend [[Emmanuel Brouillard]], conservateur du [[Musée Botul]], [[Christophe Clerc]] et [[Claire Doubliez]], avocats de la [[Conférence du stage]], [[Hervé Le Tellier]], [[Oulipo|oulipien]], [[Patrice Minet]], comédien, membre de la troupe du [[Café de la Gare]], [[Bertrand Rothé]], économiste, [[Jacques Gaillard]], latiniste et écrivain, et [[Frédéric Pagès]], journaliste.

Parmi les nouveaux membres du NoDuBo : [[Jean-Hugues Lime]], comédien, [[Ali Magoudi]], psychanalyste, [[Gérard Mordillat]], écrivain et réalisateur.

Les attributions et fonctions des membres du NoDubo sont tenues secrètes. Ils sont tous membres du Jury Botul, qui attribue chaque année différents « Prix Botul ».

== Œuvres de Botul « transcrites » ==
* ''Landru, Précurseur du Féminisme : la correspondance inédite, 1919-1922'', (correspondance « retrouvée » par Christophe Clerc et Bertrand Rothé), [[éditions Mille et une nuits]] {{ISBN|2-842-055-87X}}
* ''La Vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant'', (conférences « retrouvées » par Frédéric Pagès), [[éditions Mille et une nuits]], {{ISBN|2-842-054-245}} et sa version [[allemand]]e ''Das sexuelle Leben des Immanuel Kant'' {{ISBN|3-379-200-174}}
* ''Nietzsche ou le démon de midi'', (texte « exhumé » par Frédéric Pagès), [[éditions Mille et une nuits]] {{ISBN|2-842-058-739}}, plaidoirie qu'il aurait faite devant un tribunal professionnel de conducteurs de taxi pour sa défense contre une accusation de « détournement de jeune fille ».
* ''Métaphysique du mou'', juin 2007, (texte « exhumé » par Jacques Gaillard), [[éditions Mille et une nuits]]

== Le prix Botul ==
Le prix Botul (du roman, de l'essai, de poésie, etc.) récompense un ouvrage dans lequel le nom de Jean-Baptiste Botul est mentionné. De plus, « la condition nécessaire mais non suffisante pour être Lauréat du prix Botul est d’appartenir au jury du Prix Botul ». Il s'agit d'un prix annuel, créé en 2004 par la ''Botul Fondation for Botulism'' (BFB).

=== Lauréats du prix Botul ===
* 2009 : [[Bertrand Rothé]], pour ''Lebrac, trois mois de prison'', Editions du Seuil.
* 2007 : [[Emmanuel Brouillard]], pour ''Trois claques à Balzac'', [[Le Castor Astral]].
* 2006 : [[Patrice Minet]], pour ''Moi et la Reine d'Angleterre'', [[Berg International]].
* 2005 : (ex aequo) [[Ali Magoudi]], pour ''Rendez-vous'', Maren Sell.
* 2005 : (ex aequo) [[Jean-Hugues Lime]], pour ''Le Roi de Clipperton'', Le Cherche-Midi éditeur.
* 2004 : [[Jacques Gaillard]], pour ''Mes aventures en Haute Savoie'', Mille et une nuits

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Marcus Behmer

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:28:22 GMT

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'''Marcus Michael Douglas Behmer''' (* [[1. Oktober]] [[1879]] in [[Weimar]]; † [[12. September]] [[1958]] in [[Berlin]]) war ein deutscher Schrift- und Buchkünstler, Illustrator, Graphiker und Maler.

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Briton Rivière

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:25:39 GMT

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'''Briton Rivière''' (14 August 1840 – 1920), [[Irish artist]], was born in [[London]].

His father, William Rivière, was for some years drawing-master at [[Cheltenham College]], and afterwards an art teacher at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was educated at Cheltenham College and at Oxford, where he took his degree in 1867. For his art training he was indebted almost entirely to his father, and early in life made for himself a place of importance among the artists of his time.

His first pictures appeared at the [[British Institution]], and in 1857 he exhibited three works at the [[Royal Academy]], but it was not until 1863 that he became a regular contributor to the Academy exhibitions. In that year he was represented by "The Eve of the [[Spanish Armada]]", and in 1864 by a "[[Romeo and Juliet]]". Subjects of this kind did not, however, attract him long, for in 1865 he began, with a picture of a "Sleeping Deer-hound", a series of paintings of animal-subjects which later occupied him almost exclusively.

Among the most memorable of his productions are:
*The Poachers Nurse A (1866)
*The Empty Chair (1869)
*Circe (1871)
*Daniel (1872)
*The Last of the Garrison (1875)
*Lazarus (1877)
*Persepolis (1878)
*In Manus Tuas, Domine (1879)
*The Magician's Doorway (1882)
*Vae Victis (1885)
*Rizpah (1886)
*An Old-Work, Wanderer(1887)
*Of a Fool and his Folly there is no End (1889)
*A Mighty Hunter before the Lord (1891; untraced)
*The King's Libation (1893)
*Beyond Man's Footsteps (1894; Tate, London)
*Phoebus Apollo (1895)
*Aggravation (1896)
*St George (1900)
*To the Hills (1901)
*Aphrodite (1902)

He also painted portraits, most notably of his brother in law, Sydney Thompson Dobell, the poet and breeder of deerhounds. A pencil sketch of [[Sydney Dobell]] by him is in the [[National Portrait Gallery (London)|National Portrait Gallery]]. Sydney Dobell's deerhounds appeared in several of his works, notably "The Empty Chair" of 1869. A [[bloodhound]] figures in "Requiescat", "The Last of the Garrison" and "Naughty Boy or Compulsory Education" (1909), which was used by [[Pears Soap]] in the sequence of promotional pictures begun with [[Millais]]' "[[Bubbles]]". Early in his career, he made some mark as an illustrator, beginning with ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]''. He was elected an Associate of the [[Royal Academy]] in 1878, and R.A. in 1881, and received the degree of [[Doctor of Civil Law|DCL]] at Oxford in 1891. He was only narrowly defeated in the election for President of the Royal Academy in 1896.

See [[Walter Armstrong|Sir Walter Armstrong]], ''Briton Rivière, R.A; His Life and Work, The Art Annual'' (1891).

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News magazine

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:20:52 GMT

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A '''news magazine''' is a print [[magazine]] or a radio or TV program, usually weekly, featuring articles or segments on current events. News magazines generally go more in-depth into stories than [[newspapers]] or television news, trying to give the reader an understanding of the context surrounding important events, rather than just the facts.

[[Radio]] news magazines are similar to television news magazines. Unlike radio newscasts, which are typically about five minutes in length, radio news magazines can run from 30 minutes up to three hours or more.

[[Television]] news magazines provide a similar service to print news magazines, but their stories are presented as short television [[documentaries]] rather than written articles. These broadcasts serve as an alternative in covering certain issues more in-depth than regular newscasts. The formula, first established by Panorama on the BBC in 1953 has proved successful around the world. Television news magazines provide several stories not seen on regular newscasts, including celebrity profiles, coverage of big businesses, hidden camera techniques, better international coverage, exposing and correcting injustices, in-depth coverage of a headline story, and hot topic interviews.
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Le Monde Illustré

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:16:49 GMT

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'''''Le Monde Illustré''''' was a leading 19th century [[illustrated news]] magazine in [[France]]. Many of its highly realistic drawings were actually made from photographs, at a time when photographic reproduction in print was not technically feasible.

''Le Monde Illustré'' is in many ways similar to the ''[[Illustrated London News]]''.

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Léon Augustin Lhermitte

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:13:14 GMT

Summary:

{{Template}}'''Léon Augustin Lhermitte''', also known as '''Léon Augustin L'hermitte''' (1844, [[Mont-Saint-Père]] – 1925, [[Paris]]) was a [[France|French]] [[Painting|painter]] and [[etcher]] of the late nineteenth century. A student of Lecocq de Boisbourdran, he was a [[Realism (arts)|realist]] artist whose primary subject matter was of rural scenes depicting the peasant worker.

He gained recognition after his show in the [[Paris Salon]] in 1864.

His many awards include the [[French Legion of Honour]] (1884) and the Grand Prize at the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|Exposition Universelle]] in 1889.

Lhermitte’s innovative use of the then contemporary media of [[pastel]]s won him the admiration of his contemporaries.

[[Vincent Van Gogh]] wrote that “If every month ''[[Le Monde Illustré]]'' published one of his compositions... it would be a great pleasure for me to be able to follow it. It is certain that for years I have not seen anything as beautiful as this scene by Lhermitte... I am too preoccupied by Lhermitte this evening to be able to talk of other things.”

Lhermitte's etchings and paintings are housed in museums around the world including [[Boston]], [[Washington, DC|Washington]], [[Chicago]], [[Montreal]], [[Brussels]], [[Rheims]], Paris, [[Moscow]] and [[Florence]].

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Arthur Mangin

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:13:05 GMT

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[[Arthur Mangin]].[[ L'Homme et la bête]]… Paris : Firmin-Didot frères, 1872

Les mystères de l'océan, Alfred Mame et fils, Tours, 1865, 2e éd., p. 436
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Ymir

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:03:04 GMT

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In [[Norse mythology]], '''Ymir''', also named '''Aurgelmir''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''gravel-yeller'') among the giants themselves, was the founder of the race of [[Jötunn|frost giants]] and an important figure in [[Norse cosmology]].

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Búri

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:02:59 GMT

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'''Búri''' was the first god in [[Norse mythology]]. He was the father of [[Borr]] and grandfather of [[Odin]]. He was formed by the cow [[Auðumbla]] licking the salty ice of [[Ginnungagap]]. The only extant source of this myth is [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]].

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Auðumbla

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 19:02:54 GMT

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'''Auðumbla''' (also spelled '''Auðumla''', '''Auðhumbla''' or '''Auðhumla''') is the primeval cow of [[Norse mythology]]. She is attested in ''[[Gylfaginning]]'', a part of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]], in association with [[Ginnungagap]] and [[Ymir]].
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Dekkers

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:56:35 GMT

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'''Wandert J. Dekkers''', beter bekend als '''Midas Dekkers''' ([[Haarlem]], [[22 april]] [[1946]]), is een [[Nederland|Nederlandse]] [[bioloog]] en [[schrijver]] van [[fictie]] en [[non-fictie]] voor kinderen en volwassenen. Hij woont in [[Weesp]].

De bekende kinderboekenschrijver schreef ruim vijftig kinder- en jeugdboeken, waarvan de meeste verhalen bevatten. In zijn niet-fictionele jeugdboeken schrijft Dekkers over aan de biologie gerelateerde onderwerpen. Daarnaast schrijft Dekkers ook fictioneel [[proza]] voor volwassenen. Als bioloog is Dekkers bekend door zijn scherpe observaties. Biologisch-wetenschappelijke thema’s weet hij met gevoel voor humor uit de doeken te doen. Dankzij zijn schrijfstijl kennen zijn boeken veel herdrukken.

==Columns==
Sinds 1980 was Dekkers [[columnist]] bij het [[VARA]]-radioprogramma [[Vroege Vogels]] en [[VARA TV Magazine]]. Daarnaast was hij ook werkzaam voor het televisieprogramma [[Nieuwslicht]].

Hij stopte op 11 februari 2007 na wat volgens de Vara de 1250e column zou zijn.

==Boeken==
In zijn boek ''Lief Dier'' beschrijft Dekkers [[bestialiteit]] in de Westerse samenleving.

''De Vergankelijkheid'' gaat over het einde dat elk leven onherroepelijk kent, en meer nog over de vraag hoe de mens omgaat met de ouderdomsfasen die aan zijn [[dood]] voorafgaan, of hoe de mens die fasen tracht te ontwijken.

In ''De Larf'' betoogt Dekkers dat de mens eigenlijk als niet-mens geboren wordt en in zijn volwassenwording een larvenfase doormaakt, net zoals vlinders. Ook is er een kritische noot in te lezen ten overstaan van het hebben van kinderen.

In augustus 2006 verscheen ''Lichamelijke Oefening'', waarin hij de stelling ontkracht dat lichaamsbeweging en sport gezond zijn voor de mens. Volgens Dekkers hoef je niet aan sport te doen om gezond te blijven; per dag iets doen als op school de trap op en af lopen is al meer dan genoeg.

==Bibliografie==
In deze bibliografie staan enkel populair-wetenschappelijke boeken. Telkens is de eerste druk vermeld.
* 1985- ''Houden beren echt van honing?''. Kinderboekenweekgeschenk
* 1992 - ''[[Lief dier. Over bestialiteit]]''
* 1997 - ''De vergankelijkheid''
* 2002 - ''De larf''
* 2004 - ''Poot'', bundeling columns
* 2004 - ''Poes'', bundeling columns
* 2005 - ''Pets'', bundeling columns
* 2005 - ''...leest A. Koolhaas'', bundeling van verhalen van [[Anton Koolhaas]], bijeengebracht door Midas Dekkers.
* 2006 - ''De tor en de koeskoes'', bundeling columns
* 2006 - ''Lichamelijke oefening''
* 2007 - ''De Walrus en andere beesten''
* 2008 - ''...leest de jaloerse kip en andere beesten'' ([[luisterboek]])
* 2009 - '' Piep. Een kleine biologie der letteren'' ([[boekenweekessay]])

==Televisie==
Behalve zijn columns in [[Nieuwslicht]] maakte Dekkers onder andere ook kinderprogramma's als [[Max Laadvermogen]] en [[Pootjes]]. Daarnaast maakte hij voor de [[VARA]] ook programma's voor volwassenen, zoals [[Midas (VARA)|Midas]] en [[Gefundenes Fressen]].
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Zinnebeeld

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:35:33 GMT

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[[Germania]] ([[symbol]])

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Germania

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:35:28 GMT

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'''Germania''' was the [[Latin]] [[Exonym and endonym|exonym]] for a geographical area of land on the east bank of the Rhine (inner Germania), which included regions of Sarmatia as well as an area under Roman control on the west bank of the Rhine. The name came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it from a Gallic term for the peoples east of the Rhine that probably meant "neighbor"

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François Leguat

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:29:32 GMT

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'''François Leguat''' (1637/1639 – September 1735) was a [[France|French]] [[List of explorers|explorer]] and [[natural history|naturalist]].
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Observationes Medicae (Tulp)

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:24:06 GMT

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'''Observationes Medicae''' is the title commonly used by early [[Dutch people|Dutch]] doctors in the 16th and 17th centuries who wrote up their cases from private practise in [[Latin]] to share with contemporary colleagues. This is therefore a common title, but this page is devoted to the 1641 book by [[Nicolaes Tulp]]. Tulp is primarily famous today for his central role in the 1632 [[:Image:Rembrandt Van Rijn, Die Anatomiestunde des Dr. Nicolaes Tulp.jpg|group portrait]] by [[Rembrandt]] of the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons, which commemorates his appointment as [[praelector]] in 1628.

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Bontius

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:22:50 GMT

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'''Jacob de Bondt''', häufig auch '''Jacobus Bontius''' (* [[1599]] in [[Leiden (Stadt)|Leiden]]; † [[30. November]] [[1631]] auf [[Java (Insel)|Java]]), war ein niederländischer [[Arzt]].

==Leben==
Jacob de Bondt ist ein Sohn des niederländischen Arztes Gerard de Bondt (1536-1599). Er studierte in Leiden und erwarb 1614 den Titel Doktor der Medizin.

Im Jahr 1627 ging er als Gesandter der [[Niederländische Ostindien-Kompanie]] nach [[Jakarta]] (damals Batavia).

Sein 1642 posthum erschienenes Werk ''De Medicina Indorum'' ist die erste bedeutende Abhandlung über die Krankheiten Ostindiens. Es enthält die ersten modernen Beschreibungen der [[Cholera]], der tropischen [[Bakterienruhr]]. der [[Frambösie]] und [[Beriberi]].

Er gilt, gemeinsam mit [[Willem Piso]], als einer der Vorläufer der tropischen Medizin.

==Ehrentaxon==
[[Charles Plumier]] benannte ihm zu Ehren die Gattung ''[[Bontia]]'' der Pflanzenfamilie der [[Braunwurzgewächse]] (Scrophulariaceae). [[Carl von Linné]] übernahm später diesen Namen.

==Werke==
* ''De Medicina Indorum libri IV'' (Leiden, 1642) <br /> posthum von Willem Piso veröffentlicht, später (z.B. Paris, 1645) mit Werken von [[Prospero Alpini]] kombiniert
* ''Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis libri VI'' (Amsterdam, 1658) <br /> posthum von Willem Piso in 6 Bänden im Werk ''De Indiae Utriusque Re Naturali et Medica'' veröffentlicht

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Bielinsky

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:08:25 GMT

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'''Fabián Bielinsky''' (3 February 1959 – 29 June 2006) was an [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[film director]] born in [[Buenos Aires]].

He started to make films early in his life, while still a high school student in the [[Colegio Nacional Buenos Aires]], after graduation he started studying psychology, a career he shortly followed and dropped out in favor to enroll in the Centro de Experimentacion y Realizacion Cinematografica (CERC, actually [[ENERC]], [[INCAA]]'s film school), to later graduate from such institution in 1983 with a short film called ''[[La Espera]]''.

He directed his first film, ''[[9 Queens (film)|Nine Queens]]'' (original title ''[[Nueve Reinas]]'') in [[2000 in film|2000]], and the second one, ''[[El Aura]]'', in [[2005 in film|2005]], which he was going to present in Edinburgh, at the International Film Festival a month later. Both films starred [[Ricardo Darín]] in the lead role and [[Alejandro Awada]] in a supporting role.

Bielinsky died from a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], in 2006, at only 47 years of age, while he was in [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]], doing a [[casting (performing arts)|casting]] for an advertisement.

Although having only directed one short and two feature films, his work was shown worldwide to excellent reviews, while his work is more appreciated in his country of origin for finding a way to make an entertaining yet thoughtful storytelling that grips the viewer; in an industry where the film offers are more polarized between overtly intellectual [[auteur]] cinema and the apparently content-lacking commercial films.

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Elaine Shaughnessy

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:08:13 GMT

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'''Edwin Thomas "Ed" Shaughnessy''' (born January 29, 1929) is a [[swing music]] and [[bebop]] [[drummer]] best known for his long association with [[Doc Severinsen]] and the [[Tonight Show Band]] on the ''[[Tonight Show]] with [[Johnny Carson]]''. He was born in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] and grew up in the New York City area, working in the 1940s with [[George Shearing]], [[Jack Teagarden]], and [[Charlie Ventura]]. In the 1950s he worked in the [[Benny Goodman]] and [[Tommy Dorsey]] bands. In the 1960s he played for [[Count Basie]] prior to joining the Tonight Show band. In 1969 Ed was the Tonight Show session drummer during the performance of [[Jimi Hendrix]]. Shaughnessy recorded extensively throughout his career and was known for his drum competition with [[Buddy Rich]]. He is an endorser of [[Ludwig-Musser|Ludwig]] drums, [[Sabian (company)|Sabian]] cymbals and [[Pro-Mark]] drumsticks.

Although best known as a [[big band]] drummer, Shaughnessy's considerable skills spilled over into small group work with Gene Ammons, Roy Eldridge, Billie Holiday, Mundell Lowe, Teo Macero, Charles Mingus, Shirley Scott, Jack Sheldon, Horace Silver and many others. For several years Shaughnessy was a member of the house band at Birdland and other New York clubs. In the early 70s he was doing similar work in Los Angeles and is credited with discovering [[Diane Schuur]], whom he introduced at the 1976 Monterey Jazz Festival.

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The True Believer

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:08:03 GMT

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'''The True Believer: Thoughts On The Nature Of Mass Movements''' is a 1951 [[social psychology]] book by [[Eric Hoffer]] which discusses the [[psychology|psychological]] causes of [[fanaticism]].

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End of history

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:06:19 GMT

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"'''End of history'''" is a controversial term used in the [[philosophy of history]] that may refer to:

*The advent of a particular political and economic system as a signal of the end point of humanity's sociocultural evolution and the final form of human government.
*''The End of History?,'' a 1989 essay by [[Francis Fukuyama]] published in the international affairs journal ''The National Interest''.
*''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', a 1992 political book by Fukuyama expanding on his essay on the same subject.

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Absolutism (European history)

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 18:00:31 GMT

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:''[[Divine right of kings]]''
'''Absolutism''' or '''The Age of Absolutism''' (c. 1610-c.1789) is a [[historiographical]] term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by any other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites. Absolutism is typically used in conjunction with some [[Europe]]an [[monarchs]] during the transition from [[feudalism]] to [[capitalism]], and monarchs described as ''absolute'' can especially be found in the [[17th century]] through the [[19th century]]. Absolutism is characterized by the ending of feudal partitioning, consolidation of power with the monarch, rise of state power, unification of the state laws, and a decrease in the influence of nobility.
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Divine right of kings

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 17:59:37 GMT

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The '''Divine Right of Kings''' is a [[politics|political]] and [[religion|religious]] doctrine of royal [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutism]]. It asserts that a [[monarch]] is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of [[God]]. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the [[aristocracy]], or any other estate of the realm, including the church. The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute [[heresy]].

The remoter origins of the theory are rooted in the medieval idea that God had bestowed earthly power to the king, just as God had given spiritual power and authority to the church, centering on the pope. The immediate author of the theory was [[Jean Bodin]], who based it on the interpretation of [[Roman law]]. With the rise of nation-states and the [[Protestant Reformation]], the theory of divine right justified the king's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of King [[James I of England]] (1603–25, having been King James VI of [[Scotland]] from 1567). King [[Louis XIV]] of France (1643–1715), though Catholic, strongly promoted the theory as well.

The theory of divine right was abandoned in England during the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688–89. The American and French revolutions of the late eighteenth century further weakened the theory's appeal, and by the early twentieth century, it had been virtually abandoned.

Such doctrines are, in the [[English speaking world]], largely associated with the [[House of Tudor]] and the early [[House of Stuart]] in Britain and the theology of the [[Caroline divines]] who held their tenure at the pleasure of James I of England (VI of Scotland), [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].

The [[Scots language|Scots]] textbooks of the divine right of kings were written in 1597-98 by James VI of Scotland before his accession to the English throne. His ''[[Basilikon Doron]]'', a manual on the duties of a king, was written to edify his four-year-old son [[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales|Henry Frederick]], who died young. According to the text, a good king "acknowledgeth himself ordained for his people, having received from the god a burden of government, whereof he must be countable". The idea of the divine right to rule has appeared in many cultures Eastern and Western spanning all the way back to the first god king [[Gilgamesh]].
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History of biology

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 17:56:19 GMT

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The '''history of biology''' traces the study of the [[life|living world]] from [[ancient]] to [[Modernity|modern]] times. Although the concept of ''[[biology]]'' as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from [[history of medicine|traditions of medicine]] and [[natural history]] reaching back to [[ancient Egyptian medicine]] and the works of [[Aristotle]] and [[Galen]] in the ancient [[Greco-Roman world]]. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] and scholars such as [[al-Jahiz]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]], [[Ibn al-Baitar]] and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. During the European [[Renaissance]] and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in [[empiricism]] and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were [[Vesalius]] and [[William Harvey|Harvey]], who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] and [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]] who began to [[Scientific classification|classify the diversity of life]] and the [[fossil record]], as well as the development and behavior of organisms. [[Microscopy]] revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for [[cell theory]]. The growing importance of [[natural theology]], partly a response to the rise of [[mechanical philosophy]], encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the [[teleological argument|argument from design]]).

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as [[botany]] and [[zoology]] became increasingly professional [[scientific discipline]]s. [[Lavoisier]] and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as [[Alexander von Humboldt]] investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for [[biogeography]], [[ecology]] and [[ethology]]. Naturalists began to reject [[essentialism]] and consider the importance of [[extinction]] and the [[history of evolutionary thought|mutability of species]]. [[Cell theory]] provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from [[embryology]] and [[paleontology]], were synthesized in [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of [[spontaneous generation]] and the rise of the [[germ theory of disease]], though the mechanism of [[biological inheritance|inheritance]] remained a mystery.

In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendel's]] work led to the rapid development of [[genetics]] by [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of [[population genetics]] and natural selection in the "[[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]]". New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] proposed the structure of [[DNA]]. Following the establishment of the [[Central Dogma]] and the cracking of the [[genetic code]], biology was largely split between ''organismal biology''—the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to ''[[cell biology|cellular]] and [[molecular biology]]''. By the late 20th century, new fields like [[genomics]] and [[proteomics]] were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms.

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Ladybirds

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 17:56:02 GMT

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'''''Coccinellidae''''' is a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[beetle]]s, known variously as '''ladybirds''' (UK, Ireland, Australia, Pakistan, South Africa), '''ladybugs''' (North America), or '''lady beetles''' (preferred by some scientists). Lesser-used names include '''ladyclock''', '''lady cow''', and '''lady fly'''.
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Conceptual history

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:14:01 GMT

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'''Conceptual history''' (also the '''History of Concepts''') is a term used to describe a branch of the [[humanities]], in particular of historical and cultural studies, which deals with the historical [[semantics]] of terms. It sees the [[etymology]] and the change in meaning of terms as forming a crucial basis for contemporary cultural, conceptual and linguistic understanding. Conceptual history deals with the evolution of paradigmatic ideas and value systems over time, such as "liberty" or "reform." It argues that [[social history]] – indeed all historical reflection – must begin with an understanding of historically contingent cultural values and practices in their particular contexts over time, not merely as unchanging ideologies or processes (i.e. as in [[Marxism]]).

Interest in conceptual history was given a particular boost in the 20th century through the publication of the ''Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie'', the ''Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe'' and the journal ''Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte''.

Conceptual history is an [[interdisciplinary]] methodology. Alongside the [[philosopher]] [[Joachim Ritter]], the [[historian]]s [[Otto Brunner]] and [[Reinhart Koselleck]] and the [[sociologist]] [[Erich Rothacker]] are viewed as the leading scholars of the research area in the German-speaking world and internationally.

==References==
* ''Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie''
* ''Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe''
* Hans Erich Bödecker (ed.), ''Begriffsgeschichte, Diskursgeschichte, Metapherngeschichte'', Göttingen: Wallstein-Verlag, 2002.
* [[Reinhart Koselleck]] (ed.), ''Historische Semantik und Begriffsgeschichte'', Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979.
* Ernst Müller (ed.), ''Begriffsgeschichte im Umbruch?'', Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 2004.
* [[Reinhart Koselleck]], ''Begriffsgeschichten'', Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp 2006.
* [[Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht]], ''Dimension und Grenzen der Begriffsgeschichte'', Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.
* Birger Hjørland. (2009). Concept Theory. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(8), 1519-1536

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History of Consciousness

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:13:55 GMT

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The '''History of Consciousness''' program is an interdisciplinary graduate program in the humanities with links to the sciences, social sciences, and arts at the [[University of California at Santa Cruz]].

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List of revolutions and rebellions

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:12:16 GMT

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[[image:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|thumb|right| The storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789, during the [[French Revolution]]]]

This is a list of [[revolution]]s and [[rebellion]]s. (For a list of coups d'état and coup attempts, see [[List of coups d'état and coup attempts]]).


{{Dynamic list}}

==BC==

*c. 2380 BC ([[short chronology]]): A popular revolt in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Lagash]] deposes [[ENSI|King]] [[Lugalanda]] and puts the reformer [[Urukagina]] on the throne.
*615 BC: The Babylonians revolt against rule from the [[Assyrian empire]].
*570 BC: A revolt broke out among native Egyptian soldiers, giving [[Amasis II]] opportunity to seize the throne.
*499–493 BC: The [[Ionian Revolt]]. Most of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cities occupied by the [[Persia|Persians]] in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Cyprus]] rose up against their Persian rulers.
*464 BC: The [[Helots|Helot]] [[serfdom|serfs]] revolt against their [[Sparta]]n masters.
*460 BC: The [[Inarus]] revolted against the [[Persia|Persians]] in [[Egypt]] with the help of his [[Athenian]] allies.
*206 BC: [[Ziying]], last ruler of the [[Qin Dynasty]] of [[China]] surrenders himself to [[Liu Bang]], leader of a popular revolt and founder of the [[Han Dynasty]].
*181–174 BC: The [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] revolt in Spain; [[Roman Republic|Romans]] eventually subdue the Celtiberians.
*154 BC: The failed [[Rebellion of the Seven States]] by members of the royal family of the [[Han Dynasty]].
*153–133 BC: The Celtiberians again revolted, and were not finally overcome until the capture of [[Numantia]].
*147–139 BC: The [[Conquest of Hispania#Viriathus and the Lusitanian Rebellion|Lusitanian Rebellion]] against the Roman forces in modern day [[Portugal]], led by Lusitanian leader named [[Viriathus]].
*73–71 BC: The failed [[Third Servile War|Roman slave rebellion]], led by the [[gladiator]] [[Spartacus]].
*52–51 BC: The revolt of the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[Gauls]], led by [[Vercingetorix]], was crushed by [[Julius Caesar]].

==1–999 AD==

*6–9: The [[Pannonia]]ns, with the [[Dalmatia]]ns and other [[Illyrian]] tribes, revolted against the [[Roman Empire]], and were overcome by [[Tiberius]] and [[Germanicus]], after a hard-fought campaign which lasted for three years.
*9: The [[Arminius]] revolt against the Roman Empire; alliance of [[Germanic people|Germanic]] tribes led by Arminius ambushed and annihilated three [[Roman legion]]s led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]].
*18: The [[Red Eyebrow Rebellion]] in [[China]].
*20: The [[Green Forest Rebellion]] in [[China]].
*60–61: [[Boudica]], queen of the [[Celt]]ic [[Iceni]] people of [[Norfolk]] in [[Roman Britain|Roman-occupied Britain]], led a major uprising of the Briton tribes against the occupying forces of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Jason Burke, [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,406152,00.html "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak"], ''[[The Observer]]'' , 3 December 2000</ref>
*66–70: The [[Great Jewish Revolt]], the first of three [[Jewish-Roman wars]] that took place in [[Iudaea Province]] against the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Rebellion-Roman-Empire.event.html History and chronology of Rebellion in Roman Empire]</ref>
*69–70: The [[Batavian rebellion]] in the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]].
*115–117: The [[Kitos War]], the second of the [[Jewish-Roman wars]].
*132–135: [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]], the third and last of the [[Jewish-Roman wars]].
*184: [[Zhang Jiao]] led an unsuccessful peasant revolt called the[[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] during the later [[Han dynasty]], which later collapsed due to destabilization and lack of co-ordination with other Yellow Turban forces across China.
*496: [[Mazdak]] led a [[Persian people|Persian]] socialistic movement and overthrew [[Shahanshah]] [[Kavadh I]] of the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian empire]].
*532: The [[Nika riots|Nika revolt]] in [[Constantinople]].
*613: A rebellion by [[Yang Xuangan]] in [[China]] was crushed by the [[Sui Dynasty]].
*623: An uprising of [[Slavs]] led by [[Samo]] against [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]].
*685–699: The [[Kharijite#History|Azraqi Khariji]] revolt in [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]] against the [[Umayyad Caliphate]].
*740: The [[Zaidi revolt]] against the Umayyad dynasty.
*740–743: The Great [[Berber Revolt]] in [[Maghreb]] against the Umayyads marked the first successful secession from the Arab caliphate (ruled from [[Damascus]]).
*747–750: The [[Battle of the Zab|Abbasid Revolt]] overthrew the [[Umayyad dynasty]]. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred.
* 755: [[Abd ar-Rahman I]] landed at [[Almuñécar]] in [[al-Andalus]]. Abd ar-Rahman I was the founder of a Muslim dynasty that ruled the greater part of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] for nearly three centuries.
*755–763: The [[An Lushan Rebellion|Rebellion]] by powerful [[Jiedushi]] [[An Lushan]] in [[Tang Dynasty]], which caused heavy damage in [[China]] in terms of population and economy.
*762: [[Muhammad ibn Abdallah]] led a failed rebellion in Medina against the second Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mansur.
*782–785: The [[Saxon people|Saxon]] revolt against [[Charlemagne]]. Rebellion was part of [[Saxon Wars]].
*814: [[Al-Hakam I]] crushed a rebellion of Iberian Muslims led by clerics in a suburb called [[al-Ribad]] on the south bank of the [[Guadalquivir]] river.
*815: [[Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibaj)]] lead an unsuccessful revolt against the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun.
*817–837: The revolution of the Iranian [[Khurramites]] led by [[Babak Khorramdin]].
*824–836: The revolt of [[Arab]] troops in [[Tunisia]] against [[Aghlabids]] was only put down with the help of the [[Berber people|Berbers]].
*828: The failed rebellion by Kim Heon-chang against [[Silla]].
*845: The rebellion by the famous naval commander [[Jang Bogo]] against [[Silla]], ended when Jang was assassinated.
*861–1003: [[Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar]] established [[Saffarid dynasty]]. He seized control of the [[Seistan]] region, conquering modern-day eastern [[Iran]], much of [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[Pakistan]]. Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar started his campaign as a bandit and formed his own army.
*864: [[Yahya ibn Umar]] lead an abortive uprising from Kufa against the [[Abbasid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Musta'in]].
*869–883: The [[Zanj Rebellion]] of black [[slave trade|African slaves]] in [[Iraq]]. The Zanj Rebellion was crushed in 883 by the [[Abbasids]].<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9078242/Zanj Zanj rebellion]</ref>
*875–884: A rebellion by salt smuggler [[Huang Chao]] against [[Tang Dynasty]] [[China]], which later collapsed due to the destabilization caused by the rebellion.
*884: [[Umar ibn Hafsun]] led anti-Ummayad dynasty forces in southern Spain.
*899–906: The [[Qarmatians]], an extremist [[Ismaili|Ismā'īlī]] [[Muslim]] sect centered in eastern [[Arabia]], revolted against [[Abbasids]].
*943–947: The great revolt of [[Abu Yazid]], a [[Khariji]] [[Berber people|Berber]] leader who assembled a large tribal coalition against [[Fatimid]] rule.
*982: The great revolt of the pagan [[Polabian Slavs]] of the lower [[Elbe]] against the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

==1000–1499==

{{seealso|Popular revolt in late medieval Europe}}

*1090: [[Hassan-i Sabbah]] Hassan took over [[Alamut]] for [[Hashshashin]].
*1095: Rebellion of northern nobles against [[William Rufus]].
*1125: The [[Almohads]] began a rebellion in the [[Atlas Mountains]].
*1156: The [[Hōgen Rebellion]] succeeded in establishing the dominance of the [[samurai]] clans and eventually the first samurai-led government in the [[history of Japan]].
*1185: The [[Vlach-Bulgarian Rebellion]] against [[Byzantine Empire]].
*1233–1234: The [[Stedingen|Stedinger]] revolt in [[Eala Freya Fresena|Frisia]] caused [[Pope Gregory IX]] to call on a crusade.
*1242–1249: The [[Prussian uprisings|The First Prussian Uprising]] against the [[Teutonic Knights]], which took place during the [[Northern Crusades]].
*1250: The [[Mamluk]]s killed the last sultan of the [[Ayyubid]] dynasty, and established the [[Bahri dynasty]].
*1296–1328: The First of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] between [[Scotland]] and [[England]], leading to renewed [[Scottish independence]] in 1328.
*1332–1357: The second instalment of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], leading again to renewed [[Scottish independence]] from [[England]] and the [[Treaty of Berwick]].
*1302: The [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] in Flanders, after which the French were ousted.
*1323–1328: Beginning as a series of scattered rural riots in late 1323, the [[Peasant revolt in Flanders 1323–1328|Peasant revolt in Flanders]] escalated into a full-scale rebellion and ended with the [[Battle of Cassel 1328|Battle of Cassel]].
*1343–1345: the [[St. George's Night Uprising]] in [[Estonia]].
* 1354: The revolt of [[Cola di Rienzi]] in [[Rome]].
*1356–1358: [[Jacquerie]]: a peasant revolt in northern France, during the [[Hundred Years' War]].
[[Image:DeathWatTylerFull.jpg|thumb|The end of the unsuccessful [[Peasants' Revolt]] in England 1381. Rebel leader Wat Tyler is killed while Richard II watches. A second image within the painting shows Richard addressing the crowd.]]
*1368: [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] led peasant [[Han Chinese]] in a rebellion against the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty]], establishing the [[Ming dynasty]].
*1378: The [[Revolt of the Ciompi]] in [[Florence]].
*1381: The [[Peasants' Revolt]], or the Great Rising of 1381, in [[England]].
*1390s: The revolts that broke out all over [[Persia]] while [[Timur Lenk]] was away were repressed with ruthless vigour; whole cities were destroyed, their populations [[List of massacres|massacred]], and towers built of their skulls.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596358/Timur Timur], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>
*1400–1415 The Welsh revolt led by [[Owain Glyndŵr]].
*1418–1427: [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] led by [[Le Loi]] revolted against [[Yongle Emperor#Military accomplishments|Chinese occupation]].
*1420: The Bohemian [[Hussites]] begin a rebellion against both Catholicism and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The wars that ensue are known as the [[Hussite Wars]].
*1434: A [[Engelbrekt rebellion|Swedish peasant rebellion]] breaks out against the Danes.
*1437: The [[Bobalna revolt|Bobâlna (Bábolna) revolt]] in [[Transylvania]], using military tactics inspired by the [[Hussite Wars|Hussites wars]].
*1444–1468: [[Skenderbeg]]'s rebellion in Ottoman-ruled [[Albania]].
*1450: The [[Kent]] rebellion led by [[Jack Cade]].
*1462–1485: The [[Rebellion of the Remences]] in [[Catalonia]].
*1497: The [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] in [[England]].

==1500–1699==
[[Image:Bolotnikov.jpg|thumb|''Bolotnikov's Battle with the Tsar's Army at Nizhniye Kotly Near Moscow'' by a Russian painter [[Ernest Lissner]].]]
[[Image:Episode of the Fronde at the Faubourg Saint-Antoine by the Walls of the Bastille.png|thumb|right|Episode of the Fronde at the Faubourg Saint-Antoine by the Walls of the Bastille]]
*1514: A peasants' war led by [[György Dózsa]] in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].
*1515: The [[Slovenian peasant revolt]].
*1515–1523: The [[Frisian]] rebellion of the [[Arumer Black Heap]], led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijard Jelckama]].
*1519–1523: The first ''[[Revolta de les Germanies]]'' in [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], an anti-monarchist, anti-feudal autonomist movement inspired by the Italian republics.
*1519–1610: The [[Jelali revolts]] in [[Anatolia]] against the authority of the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*1520–1522: The [[Revolt of the Comuneros]] against the rule of Spanish king and Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].
*1523: The nobility in [[Jutland]] rebelled against [[Christian II of Denmark]], forcing him to abdicate and flee the country 1 May.
*1524–1525: The [[Peasants' War]] of in the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
*1542: The [[Dackefejden|Dacke Feud]] in [[Sweden]].
*1549: The [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] in [[Cornwall]] and [[Devon]], [[United Kingdom]].
*1549: [[Kett's Rebellion]].
*1566–1648: [[Eighty Years' War]]; revolt of the Low Countries against Spain.
*1567–1799 and beyond: [[Philippine revolts against Spain]].
*1568–1571: The [[Morisco Revolt]] by the remnants of the [[Morisco]] community (Spanish Christian converts from [[Islam]] ["crypto-Muslims"] in [[Granada]], [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]].
*1573: The [[Croatian and Slovenian peasant revolt]].
*1594–1603: The [[Nine Years War]] or [[Tyrone's Rebellion]] in [[Ulster]], [[Ireland]] against English rule in [[Ireland]].
*1596: The [[Club War]] uprising in [[Finland]].
*1606–1607: The [[Bolotnikov rebellion]] for the abolition of [[Serfdom in Russia|serfdom]], which was part of the [[Time of Troubles]] in [[Russia]].
*1618–1625: The [[Thirty Years' War#The Bohemian Revolt|Bohemian Revolt]] against the [[Habsburgs]]. Rebellion was part of [[Thirty Years' War]].
*1637–1638: The [[Shimabara Rebellion]] of [[Kirishitan|Japanese Christians]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-540634/Shimabara-Rebellion Shimabara Rebellion (Japanese history)]</ref>
*1640: The [[Portuguese Restoration War|Portuguese Revolt]] against [[Spanish Empire]].
*1640–1652: The [[Catalan Revolt]].
*1640–1644: The [[Moravian Wallachia|Vlach]] uprising against [[Habsburg]] rule in [[Moravia]].
*1641: The [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]].
*1642–1653: The [[English Revolution]], commencing as a civil war between Parliament and the King, and culminating in the execution of Charles I and the establishment of a republican Commonwealth, which was succeeded several years later by the Protectorate of [[Oliver Cromwell]].
*1644: The [[Li Zicheng]] rebellion against the [[Ming Dynasty]].
*1647: The [[Neapolitan Republic (1647)|Naples Revolt]].
*1648: The [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of Cossacks in Ukraine against Polish nobility in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].
*1648–1653: The [[Fronde]], in France.
*1664-1670: The [[Zrinski]], [[Wesselényi]] and [[Frankopan]] uprising against the [[Habsburgs]].
*1668: The [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] in the [[Anandpur]] revolted against the [[Mughal Empire]].
*1668–1676: The [[Solovetsky Monastery Uprising]].
*1669: The [[1669 Jat uprising|Jat uprising]] under [[Gokula]]. The Hindu [[Jat]]s in the [[Agra district]] revolted against the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].
*1672: The [[Aurangzeb#The Pashtun rebellion|Pasthun rebellion]] against the [[Mughals]].
*1672–1674: The [[Lipka Tatars#Timeline|Lipka Rebellion]], an uprising of [[Lipka Tatars|Polish Tatars]] against the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].
*1672–1678: The [[Messina|Messina Revolt]]. The Sicilian revolt against Spanish rule took place during the [[Franco-Dutch War]] of [[Louis XIV]]; the rebels were supported by France.
*1675–1676: [[King Philip's War]] between Indians and English settlers, sometimes called Metacom's Rebellion.
*1676: The [[Bashkirs#History|Bashkir]] Rebellion against Russian rule.
*1680: The [[Pueblo Revolt]] against [[Spaniards|Spanish]] settlers in [[New Mexico]].
*1682: The [[Moscow Uprising of 1682|Moscow Uprising]] of the [[Moscow]] [[Streltsy]] regiments.
*1688: The [[Siamese revolution (1688)]] the overthrow of pro-foreign Siamese king [[Narai]] by Mandarin [[Petracha]].
*1688: The [[Glorious Revolution]] in England overthrew King James II and established a Whig-dominated Protestant constitutional monarchy.
*1688–1746: The [[Jacobite Risings]] were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in the [[British Isles]] occurring between 1688 and 1746.
*1689: [[Karposh's Rebellion]] against [[Ottoman Empire]].
*1693: The second ''[[Revolta de les Germanies]]'' in [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], prompted by feudal taxation.
*1698: The [[Streltsy Uprising]] in Russia.

==1700–1799==
[[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|Surrender of [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] at Yorktown in 1781, during the [[American Revolutionary War]].]]
[[Image:Hanging.gif||thumb|Hanging of suspected [[United Irishmen]] by Government troops during the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]].]]
*1702–1715: The [[Camisard|Camisard Rebellion]] in [[France]].
*1703–1711: [[Rákóczi's War for Independence|The Rákóczi Uprising]] against the [[Habsburgs]].
*1707–1709: The [[Bulavin Rebellion]] in [[Imperial Russia]].
*1709: [[Mir Wais Hotak]], an [[Afghanistan|Afghani]] tribal leader, led a successful rebellion against [[Gurgin Khan]], the Persian governor of [[Kandahar]].
*1722: Afghan rebels defeated [[Husayn (Safavid)|Shah Sultan Hossein]] and ended the [[Safavid dynasty]].
*1743: The [[Dalecarlian Rebellion (1743)|Fourth Dalecarlian Rebellion]] in [[Sweden]].
*1745–1746: The [[Jacobite Rising#The 'Forty-Five'|Jacobite Rising]] in [[Scotland]].
*1763–1766: [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] by numerous [[North American Indian]] tribes who joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes region]].
*1768: The [[Rebellion of 1768]] by Creole and German settlers objecting to the turnover of the [[Louisiana Territory]] from [[New France]] to [[New Spain]].
*1770: The [[Orlov Revolt]] in [[Peloponnese]].
*1773–1775:[[Pugachev's Rebellion]] was the largest peasant revolt in [[Russia]]'s history. Between the end of the Pugachev rebellion and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia.<ref>[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4503 The Slave Revolts]</ref>
*1775–1783: The [[American Revolution]] establishes independence of the thirteen North American colonies from Great Britain, creating the republic of the United States of America. A [[war of independence]] in that it created one nation from another.
*1773–1802?: The [[Tay Son]] Revolt, annihilation of the ruling [[Trinh Lords|Trinh]] and [[Nguyen Lords|Nguyen]] clans as well as the [[Posterior Le Dynasty|Le Dynasty]] in [[Vietnam|Dai Viet]].
*1780–1782: José Gabriel Condorcanqui, known as [[Túpac Amaru II]], raises an indigenous peasant army in revolt against Spanish control of [[Peru]]. Julián Apasa, known as [[Tupac Katari]] allied with Tupac Amaru and lead an indigenous revolt in Alto Peru (preset day [[Bolivia]]) nearly destroying the city of [[La Paz]] in a siege.
*1789: Regarded as one of the most influential of all socio-political revolutions, the [[French Revolution]] is associated with the rise of the bourgeoisie and the downfall of the aristocracy.
*1791–1804: The [[Haitian Revolution]]: A successful slave rebellion, led by [[Toussaint Louverture]], establishes [[Haiti]] as the first free, black republic.
*1793–1796: The [[Revolt in the Vendée]] was popular uprising against the Republican government during the [[French Revolution]].
*1794: The [[Kościuszko Uprising|Polish revolt]].
*1795–1796: Rebels in [[Grenada]] led by [[Julien Fédon]] executed the governor and wrested control of most of the island from Britain, which maintained a stronghold in St. George's, the capital. The goal was to incorporate Grenada into [[revolutionary France]], but Fédon soon disappeared and was never heard from again.
*1796–1804: The [[White Lotus Rebellion]] against the [[Qing Dynasty|Manchu Dynasty]] in China.
*1797: The [[Spithead and Nore mutinies]] were two major mutinies by sailors of the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]].
*1798: The [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]] failed to overthrow British rule in Ireland.

==1800–1849==
[[Image:Haitian revolution.jpg|thumb|Battle at "Snake Gully" 1802, during the [[Haitian Revolution]] against French rule.]]
[[Image:Assault on San Engracia monastery by Baron Lejeune.JPG|thumb|''[[Siege of Saragossa (1809)]]'': The French assault on the ''San Engracia'' monastery.]]
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]] commemorates the [[July Revolution|French revolution of 1830]].]]
[[Image:Beauclerkwebsite.jpg|thumb|A scene from the failed [[French-Canadian]] [[Rebellions of 1837|rebellion]] against British rule in 1837.]]
*pre-1800–1872: [[Philippine revolts against Spain]] (See also 1896 and 1898 in this list).
*1803: The rebellion of [[Robert Emmet]] in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] against British rule.
*1804–1817: The [[Serbian revolution]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule erupts.
*1808: The [[Dos de Mayo Uprising]] against the occupation of [[Madrid]] by [[France|French]] troops.
*1808–1814: The [[Peninsula war]].
*1809–1810: The rebellion of [[Velu Thampi Dalawa]] of [[Travancore]].
*1809: The city of Chuquisaca, modern [[Sucre]], starts the [[Chuquisaca Revolution]].
*1810: The [[West Florida]] rebellion against [[Spain]], eventually becomes a short-lived republic.
*1810–1821: The [[Mexican War of Independence]], a revolution against Spanish colonialism.
*1810: The [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Viceroy of the Río de la Plata]] [[Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros]] is deposed during the [[May Revolution]].
*1812: The peasant rebellion of [[Hong Gyeong-nae]] against [[Joseon Dynasty]] of [[Korea]].
*1817: The [[Pernambucan Revolution]], a republican separatist movement which resulted in the creation of the short-lived Republic of Pernambuco (7 March 1817–20 May 1817).
*1817: The [[Pentrich]] Revolution, [[Derbyshire]]; an ill-fated attempt to overthrow the Government, unknowingly it was instigated by William Oliver, aka Oliver the Spy. Three men were executed in November 1817, and fourteen men were transported to NSW. The event is known as 'England's Last Revolution' (9–10 June 1817).
*1820: [[Radical War]] or "Scottish Insurrection".
*1820: Revolutions in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]].
*1820–1824: The revolutionary war of independence in [[Peru]] led by [[José de San Martín]].
*1821–1829: The [[Greek War of Independence]].
*1822–1823: The republican revolution in [[Mexico]] overthrows Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide]].
*1825: The [[Decembrist revolt]] in [[Russian Empire]].
*1825–1830: The [[Java War]] or Dipanegara Revolution, when the prince of [[Mataram Islam]] against the tax and land rent dommination from [[Netherlands|Dutch]].
*1826: The [[Janissary revolts|Janissary revolt]] in [[Ottoman Empire]].
*1827–1828: The failed conservative rebellion in [[Mexico]] led by [[Nicolás Bravo]].
*1830: The [[July Revolution]], or the French Revolution of 1830, was a revolt by the middle class against Bourbon King Charles X which forced him out of office and replaced him with the Orleanist King Louis-Philippe (the "July Monarchy").
*1830: The [[Belgian Revolution]] was a conflict in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands that began with a riot in Brussels in August 1830 and eventually led to the establishment of an independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium.
*1830–1831: The [[November Uprising]] in Poland.
*1831: The [[Merthyr Rising]] in South Wales.
*1832–1843: [[Abdelkader]]'s rebellion in French-occupied [[Algeria]].
*1834–1859: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus mountains|Caucasus]].
*1835–1836: Texas secedes from Mexico in the [[Texas Revolution]].
*1835–1845: The [[War of Tatters]], Separatists [[Gaúcho|gauchos]] revolutionaries declared the independence of the [[Rio Grande do Sul]] from [[Brazil]].
*1837–1838: The [[Rebellions of 1837]] failed republican revolutions against British rule in Canada.
*1841–1842: The [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army#Afghan uprising|Afghan uprising]]. Hostile [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] tribes massacred [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s British army including some 12,000 civilian dependents and camp followers.<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/collections/afghan/summary1838to1842.html Summary: the First Anglo-Afghan War, 1838–42]</ref>
*1847: The [[Caste War of Yucatán|Maya Rebellion]] in [[Yucatán]].
*1847: The [[Taos Revolt]] in New Mexico against the United States.
*1848: The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a wave of failed liberal and republican revolutions that swept [[Europe]].
*1848: The [[French Revolution of 1848]] led to the creation of the [[French Second Republic]].
*1848: The [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states]].
*1848: The [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]].
*1848: The [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]] grew into a war for independence from [[Austrian Empire]].
*1848: The [[Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848]] took place during the [[Great Irish Famine]].
*1848: A rebellion in British-ruled [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].

==1850–1899==
*1851–1864: The [[Taiping Rebellion]] against the [[Qing Dynasty]] and [[Manchu]] domination in China. In total between 20 and 30 million lives had been lost, making it the second deadliest [[war]] in [[human history]].
*1854: A revolution in [[Spain]] against the [[Moderate Party]] Government.
*1854–1873: The [[Miao]] Rebellion in China.
*1854–1855: The [[Revolution of Ayutla]] in [[Mexico]].
*1855–1873: The [[Panthay rebellion]] by Chinese [[Muslim]]s against the [[Qing Dynasty]].
*1857: The failed Indian rebellion against [[British East India Company]], marking the end of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule in India. Also known as the 1857 War of Independence and, particularly in the West, the [[Sepoy Mutiny]].
*1858: The [[Mahtra War]] in [[Estonia]].
*1858–1861: The [[War of the Reform]] in [[Mexico]].
*1859: The [[Second Italian War of Independence]].
*1861–1865: The [[American Civil War]] in the [[United States]], between the United States and the [[Confederate States of America]], which was formed out of eleven [[Southern United States|southern]] [[U.S. state|states]].
*1861–1866: [[Quantrill's Raiders]] in [[Missouri]].
*1862: The [[Dakota War of 1862|Sioux Uprising]] in [[Minnesota]].<ref>{{cite web| last =Kunnen-Jones| first =Marianne| title =Anniversary Volume Gives New Voice To Pioneer Accounts of Sioux Uprising| publisher =University of Cincinnati| date =2002-08-21| url =http://www.uc.edu/news/sioux.htm| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}</ref>
*1862–1877: The [[Dungan revolt|Muslim Rebellion]] by Chinese Muslims against the [[Qing Dynasty]].
*1863: The [[New York Draft Riots]].<ref>[http://www.fairfield.edu/x5964.html Renowned author to speak about 1863 New York draft riots at Fairfield University's DiMenna-Nyselius Library] press release [[Fairfield University]]</ref>
[[Image:Praha Barricades 1848.jpg|thumb|[[Prague]] barricades during the [[Revolutions of 1848|European Revolutions of 1848]].]]
[[Image:Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb| Boxers fighting [[Eight-Nation Alliance]]]]
*1863–1865: The [[January Uprising]] was the [[list of Polish uprisings|Polish uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
*1865: The [[Morant Bay rebellion]].
*1866: The [[Uprising of Polish political exiles in Siberia]].
*1866–1868: The [[Meiji Restoration]] and modernization revolution in Japan. [[Samurai]] uprising leads to overthrow of shogunate and establishment of "modern" parliamentary, Western-style system.
*1867: The [[Fenian Rising]]: an attempt at a nationwide rebellion by the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] against British rule.
*1868: The [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|Glorious Revolution]] in [[Spain]] deposes Queen [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]].
*1868: In the [[Grito de Lares]], rebels proclaim the independence of [[Puerto Rico]] from [[Spain]].
*1869–1870: The [[Red River Rebellion]], the events surrounding the actions of a [[provisional government]] established by [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] leader [[Louis Riel]] at the [[Red River Settlement]], [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]].
*1871: The [[Paris Commune]].
*1871–1872: [[Porfirio Díaz]] rebels against President [[Benito Juárez]] of Mexico.
*1871: The liberal revolution in [[Guatemala]].
*1875: The [[Deccan Riots]].
*1875: The [[Herzegovinian rebellion]], the most famous of the rebellions against the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[Herzegovina]]; unrest soon spread to other areas of [[Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Bosnia]].
*1876: The second rebellion by [[Porfirio Díaz]] against President [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]] of Mexico.
*1876: The [[April uprising]], a revolt by the Bulgarian population against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule.
*1877: The [[Satsuma Rebellion]] of [[Satsuma han|Satsuma]] ex-[[samurai]] against the [[Meiji government]].
*1882: The [[Urabi Revolt]]: an uprising in [[Egypt]] on June 11, 1882 against the [[Khedive]] and European influence in the country. It was led by and named after Colonel [[Ahmed Urabi]].
*1885: A peasant revolt in the [[Ancash]] region of Peru led by [[Pedro Pablo Atusparía]] succeeds in occupying the [[Callejón de Huaylas]] for several months.
*1885: The [[North-West Rebellion]] of [[Métis]] in [[Saskatchewan]].
*1888: The [[Rebellion of Peasant in Banten]], Indonesia.
*1893: A liberal revolt brings [[José Santos Zelaya]] to power in [[Nicaragua]].
*1894–1895: The [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]]: [[Korea]]n peasants led by [[Jeon Bong-jun]] revolted against [[Joseon Dynasty]]; the revolt was crushed by [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Chinese]] intervention, leading to [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
*1895: The revolution against President [[Andrés Avelino Cáceres]] in [[Peru]] ushers in a period of stable constitutional rule.
*1896–1898: The [[Philippine Revolution]], a war of independence against Spanish rule directed by the [[Katipunan]] society.
*1898: The Dukchi Ishan (Andican Uprising): Kirgiz, Uzbek, and Kipcak peoples rebelled against Tsarist Russia in Turkestan (Fargana Valley).
*1898: A mob of [[white supremacist]]s forced out the city government of [[Wilmington, North Carolina]].<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93615391 How The Only Coup D'Etat In U.S. History Unfolded]. NPR/Weekend Edition Sunday, August 17, 2008.</ref>
*1899–1901: The [[Boxer Rebellion]] against foreign influence in areas such as trade, politics, religion and technology that occurred in [[China]] during the final years of the [[Manchu Dynasty]].

==1900–1909==
[[File:Ottoman-Empire-Public-Demo.png|thumb|right|Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, during the [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908.]]
*1903: The [[Ilinden Uprising]] of the [[Ethnic Macedonians|Macedonians]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] breaks out.
*1904: A liberal revolution in [[Paraguay]].
*1905: The failed bourgeois-liberal [[Russian Revolution of 1905|revolution]] against Tsar Nicholas II in [[Russia]].
*1905–1906: The [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|Persian/Iranian constitutional revolution]].
*1905–1906: The [[Maji Maji Rebellion]] in German east Africa.
*1907: The [[1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt|Romanian Peasants' Revolt]].
*1908: The [[Young Turk Revolution]]: [[Young Turks]] force the autocratic ruler Abdul Hamid II to restore parliament and constitution in the Ottoman Empire.

==1910–1919==
[[Image:Toma de Juarez.jpg|thumbnail|right|Leaders of the 1910 revolt after the First Battle of Juárez. Seen are [[José María Pino Suárez]], [[Venustiano Carranza]], [[Francisco I. Madero]] (and his father), [[Pascual Orozco]], [[Pancho Villa]], Gustavo Madero, Raul Madero, [[Abraham Gonzalez]], and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi Jr.]]]]
[[Image:1917 - Execution à Verdun lors des mutineries.jpg|thumb|1917 - Execution at Verdun sometime in 1916]]
[[Image:Soviet Union, Lenin (55).jpg|thumb|right|[[Vladimir Lenin]] leader of the Bolsheviks]]
*1910–1920: The [[Mexican Revolution]] overthrows the dictator Porfirio Díaz; seizure of power by Institutional Revolutionary Party.
*1910: The [[5 October 1910 revolution|republican revolution]] in [[Portugal]].
*1910–1911: The [[Sokehs Rebellion]] erupts in German-ruled [[Micronesia]]. Its primary leader, [[Somatau]], is executed soon after being captured.
*1911: The [[Xinhai Revolution]] overthrows the ruling Qing Dynasty and establishment of the Republic of China.
*1914: The Ten Days War was a shooting war involving irregular forces of coal miners using dynamite and rifles on one side, opposed to the Colorado National Guard, Baldwin Felts detectives, and mine guards deploying machine guns, cannon and aircraft on the other, occurring in the aftermath of the [[Ludlow Massacre]]. The Ten Days War ended when federal troops intervened.
*1914: The [[Boer Revolt]] against the British in [[South Africa]].
*1915: The [[Armenian Genocide|Armenian Revolt]] in city of [[Van]] against the Ottomans in [[Turkey]].
*1916: The [[Easter Rising]] in [[Dublin, Ireland]] during which the Irish Republic was proclaimed.
*1916: An anti-French uprising in [[Algeria]].
*1916: The [[Kazakhstan#Russian Empire|Central Asian Revolt]] started when the [[Russian Empire]] government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.
*1916–1917: The [[Kaocen Revolt|Tuareg rebellion]] against [[French colonial empires|French colonial rule]] of the area around the [[Aïr Mountains]] of northern [[Niger]].
*1916–1918: The [[Arab Revolt]] with the aim of securing independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*1916–1923: The [[Irish War of Independence]], the period of nationalist rebellion, guerrilla warfare, political change and civil war which brought about the establishment of the independent nation, the [[Irish Free State]].
*1916–1947: [[Gandhi]]'s struggle against the [[United Kingdom|British]] for Indian Independence.
*1917: The [[French Army Mutinies (1917)|French Army Mutinies]].
*1917: The [[February Revolution]] overthrows Tsar Nicholas II in Russia.
*1917: The [[Green Corn Rebellion]] takes place in rural [[Oklahoma]].
*1917: The [[October Revolution]] in Russia: Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia and the establishment of the Soviet Union.
*1918: The [[Finnish Civil War]].
*1918: The [[Christmas Uprising]] in [[Montenegro]]: Montenegrins ([[Zelenaši]]) rebelled against unification of [[Kingdom of Montenegro]] with [[Kingdom of Serbia]].
*1918: The [[Wilhelmshaven mutiny]].
*1918: The [[German Revolution of 1918–19|German Revolution]] overthrows the Kaiser; establishment of the [[Weimar Republic]].
*1918–1919: A wave of strikes and student unrest shakes Peru. These events influence two of the dominant figures of Peruvian politics in the 20th century: [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre]] and [[José Carlos Mariátegui]].
*1918–1919: The [[Greater Poland Uprising (1918-1919)]] Polish uprising against German authorities.
*1918–1920: The [[Georgian-Ossetian conflict (1918-1920)]], the southern [[Ossetians]] revolted against [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] rule.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4498709.ece Analysis: roots of the conflict between Georgia, South Ossetia and Russia]</ref>
*1918–1921: The [[Ukrainian Revolution]].
*1918–1922: The [[Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks|Third Russian Revolution]], a failed anarchist revolution against both Bolshevism and the White movement.
*1918–1931: The [[Basmachi Revolt]] against [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] rule in [[Central Asia]].
*1919–1920: The Euphrates Revolt, Iraqi insurgents revolt against British and British-Indian troops, attempting to create a Muslim regime or the restoration of Turkish rule.
*1919–1921: The [[Tambov Rebellion]], one of the largest peasant rebellions against the [[Bolshevik]] regime during the [[Russian Civil War]].
*1919–1921: The [[Silesian Uprisings]] of the ethnic [[Poles]] against [[Weimar Republic|Weimar]] rule.
*1919–1922: The [[Turkish War of Independence]] commanded by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].
*1919: The [[German Revolution]].
*1919: A revolution in [[Hungary]], resulting in the short-lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]].

==1920–1929==

*1920: The [[Pitchfork Uprising]] was a peasant uprising against the Soviet policy of the [[war communism]] in what is today [[Tatarstan]].
*1920–1922: [[Gandhi]] led [[Non-cooperation movement]].
*1921: The [[Battle of Blair Mountain]] ten to fifteen thousand coal miners rebel in [[West Virginia]], assaulting mountain-top lines of trenches established by the coal companies and local sheriff's forces in the largest armed, organized uprising in American labor history.
*1921: The [[Kronstadt rebellion]] of Soviet sailors against the government of the early [[Russian SFSR]].
*1921–1923: The [[Yakut Revolt]].
*1921–1924: A revolution in (Outer) [[Mongolia]] re-establishes the country's independence and sets out to construct a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style [[socialist state]].
*1922–1923: The [[Irish Civil War]], between supporters of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] and the government of the [[Irish Free State]] and more radical members of the original [[Irish Republican Army]] who opposed the treaty and the new government.
*1923: The founding of the [[Republic of Turkey]] by overthrow of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and introduction of [[Atatürk's Reforms]].
*1923: The [[Klaipėda Revolt]] in the [[Memel territory]] that had been detached from [[Germany]] after World War I.
*1924–1927: The [[Sheikh Said Rebellion]].
*1925: The [[July Revolution (Ecuador)|July Revolution]] in [[Ecuador]].
*1925–1927: The [[Syrian Revolution]], a revolt initiated by the [[Druze]] and led by [[Sultan al-Atrash]] against [[French Mandate of Syria|French Mandate]].
*1926: The [[28th May 1926 coup d'état|National Revolution]] in [[Portugal]] initiated a period known as the [[Ditadura Nacional|National Dictatorship]].
*1926–1929: The [[Cristero War]] in [[Mexico]], an uprising against anti-clerical government policy.
*1926–1927: The first [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]] (Indonesian Communist Party) rebellion against [[colonialism]] and [[imperialism]] of [[Dutch Hindie]].
*1927–1931: The [[Republic of Ararat|Kurdish Rebellion]] against [[Turkey]].
*1927–1933: A rebellion led by [[Augusto César Sandino]] against the United States presence in [[Nicaragua]].

==1930–1939==
[[Image:ลานพระบรมรูปทรงม้า 24-6-2475 .jpg|thumb||Soldiers assembled in front of the Throne Hall, Siam, 24 June 1932]]
*1930: The [[Brazilian Revolution of 1930]] led by [[Getúlio Vargas]].
*1930: The [[Salt Satyagraha]], a campaign of non-violent protest against the British [[salt tax]] in [[colonial India]].
*1932: The [[Constitutionalist Revolution]] against the provisional president [[Getúlio Vargas]] led Brazil to a short civil war.
*1932: The [[Aprista]] revolt in [[Trujillo, Peru]].
*1932: The [[Siamese coup d'état of 1932]], sometimes called the "Promoters Revolution", ends absolute monarchy in [[Thailand]].
*1933: The popular revolution against Cuban dictator [[Gerardo Machado]].
*1934: In October, workers including radical socialists and anarchists stage coups in the [[Spain|Spanish]] regions of [[Asturias]] and [[Catalonia]]. The immediate cause was the entrance of a right-wing Catholic party into the government of the unstable [[Second Spanish Republic]]. The Asturian uprising was put down by General [[Francisco Franco]].
*1936: The [[Febrerista Revolution]], led by Rafael Franco, ended oligarchic Liberal Party rule in Paraguay.
*1936: General Francisco Franco led a coup and started the [[Spanish Civil War]], leading to the [[Spanish Revolution]].
*1936–1939: A period of so-called "military socialism" in [[Bolivia]] follows a revolution in which celebrated war hero [[David Toro]] takes power. A constitution establishing a corporative state is promulgated in 1938, following the nationalization of [[Standard Oil]] and the passage of progressive labor laws.
*1937–1938: The [[Dersim Rebellion]] was the most important [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] rebellion in modern [[Turkey]].
*1937: The "[[Jornadas de Mayo]]", a workers' revolution in [[Catalonia]].
*1938–1948: The [[Zionist Revolution]], or the period of [[Jewish]] guerrilla warfare, the spread words of terror,and the application of duress upon farmers to sell their lands; against the normal Palestinians supported by the [[British Empire]]and European nations, in [[Palestine]] which brought about the establishment of the [[State of Israel]].

==1940–1949==
[[Image:Powstanie warszawskie patrol.jpg|thumb|Patrol of Lieut. [[Stanisław Jankowski]] ("Agaton") from ''Batalion Pięść'', 1 August 1944: "W-hour" (17:00)]]
[[Image:PLA Enters Peking.jpg|thumb|The PLA enters Beijing in the [[Pingjin Campaign]] and control the later capital of PRC]]
*1940–1944: The [[1940-1944 insurgency in Chechnya|Insurgency in Chechnya]].
*1940–1947: [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]]'s struggle for an separate state for the [[Muslims]] of [[India]].
*1941: The [[Lithuanian 1941 independence|June Uprising]] against the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Lithuania]].
*1941–1945: [[Yugoslav People's Liberation War]] against the [[Axis Powers]] in [[World War II]].
*1941-1944: [[Greek Resistance]]
*1942: Sri Lankan soldiers ignite the [[Cocos Islands Mutiny]] in an unsuccessful attempt to transfer the islands to Japanese control.
*1942: [[The destruction of the German garrison in Lenin]].
*1943: The [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].
*1943: The uprising at [[Treblinka extermination camp#Resistance|Treblinka extermination camp]].
*1943: The uprising at [[Sobibór extermination camp]].
*1943-1945: [[Italian Resistance Movement]] against the Fascist [[Italian Social Republic]], culminating in the 25th April final insurrection in Northern Italy.
*1944: The [[Guatemalan Revolution]] overthrows the dictator [[Federico Ponce Vaides]] by liberal military officers.
*1944: The [[Warsaw Uprising]] was an armed struggle during the [[Second World War]] by the [[Poland|Polish]] [[Armia Krajowa|Home Army]] (''Armia Krajowa'') to liberate [[Warsaw]] from [[Germany|German]] occupation and [[Nazism|Nazi]] rule. It started on 1 August 1944.
*1944: The [[Liberation of Paris#Events timeline|Paris Uprising]] staged by the [[French Resistance]] against the German Paris garrison.
*1944: The [[Slovak National Uprising]] against [[Nazi Germany]].
*1944: The uprising at [[Auschwitz extermination camp]].
*1944–1947: A Communist-friendly government was installed in [[Bulgaria]] following a coup d'état and the Soviet invasion.
*1944: Following the liberation of [[Albania]], the [[Communist Party of Albania]] under [[Enver Hoxha]] consolidated its control and declared the [[People's Republic of Albania]] in January 1946.
*1944–1949: The [[Greek Civil War]].
*1944–1965: The [[Forest Brothers|Forest Brothers Rebellion]] in [[Baltic states]] against [[Soviet Union]].
*1945–1949: The [[Indonesian National Revolution]] against [[Netherlands|Dutch]] after their independence from [[Japan]]. Led by [[Soekarno]], [[Hatta]], [[Tan Malaka]], etc. with the Dutch led by [[Van Mook]].
*1945: The [[Prague uprising]] against [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|occupation]] during [[World War II]].
*1945: The [[August Revolution]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] declared the independence of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] from French rule.
*1945: A democratic revolution in [[Venezuela]], led by [[Rómulo Betancourt]].
*1946: The [[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]] takes place in [[Bombay]], and spreads to different parts of [[British India]], demanding [[Indian independence]].
*1947: Three months after an abortive coup, civil war broke out in [[Paraguay]]. The rebellion was crushed by the government of dictator [[Higinio Morínigo]].
*1946–1951: The [[Telengana Rebellion]]: a [[Communist]]-led [[peasant revolt]] in [[Hyderabad State]], [[India]].
*1947–1952: In the [[Albanian Subversion]], the intelligence services of the United States and Britain deployed exiled fascists, Nazis, and monarchists in a failed attempt to foment a counterrevolution in Communist-ruled Albania.
*1947: [[Angami Zapu Phizo]] declared the independence of Nagaland from [[India]] only to be subdued by the Indian army.
*1947: The [[228 Massacre]] occurred following discontent and resentment of the native Taiwanese under the early rule of the KMT of the island.
*1948: The Costa Rican Civil War precipitated by the vote of the Costa Rican Legislature, dominated by pro-government representatives, to annul the results of the presidential election of 1948.
*1948: Following the liberation of Korea, Marxist former guerrillas under [[Kim Il Sung]] work to rapidly industrialize the country and rid it of the last vestiges of "feudalism.".
*1948–1960: The [[Malayan Emergency]].
*1949: The Communist-led [[Chinese Civil War|Chinese Revolution]] under chairman Mao overthrows the ruling Nationalist Party and establishes the People's Republic of China.

==1950–1959==
[[Image:Semaine Barricades Alger 1960.jpg|thumb|right|Barricades in Algiers. "Long live Massu" (''Vive Massu'') is written on the banner. (January 1960)]]

[[Image:Raulche2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Raul Castro]] (left), with his arm around second-in-command, [[Ernesto "Che" Guevara]], in their Sierra de Cristal Mountain stronghold in Oriente Province Cuba, 1958.]]

*1950: The [[Jayuya]] revolt in Puerto Rico, explosion in the [[Blair House]], and shooting at Congress, all looking for Puerto Rican independence.
*1954–1962: The [[Algerian War of Independence]]: a revolutionary war of independence against French colonialism.
*1950s: The [[Mau Mau Uprising]].
*1952: A popular revolution in Bolivia led by [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]] and the [[Revolutionary Nationalist Movement]] (MNR) initiates a period of multiparty democracy lasting until a 1964 military coup.
*1952: The [[Rosewater Revolution]] in [[Lebanon]].
*1953: The [[Vorkuta uprising]] was a major uprising of the [[Gulag]] [[political prisoner|inmates]] in [[Vorkuta]] in the summer of 1953. Like other camp uprisings it was bloodily quelled by the [[Red Army]] and the [[NKVD]].<ref>[http://www.lituanus.org/2005/05_3_1Latkovskis.htm I. Baltic Prisoners of the Gulag Revolts of 1953 - L. Latkovskis]</ref>
*1954: The [[Kengir uprising]] in the [[Soviet]] prison labor camp [[Kengir]].
*1954: The [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] uprising against [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] rule in [[Hotan]].
*1955–1960: The Guerrilla war against British colonial rule of [[Cyprus]] led by the [[EOKA]] (National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters).
*1955–1972: The [[First Sudanese Civil War]] was a conflict between the northern part of Sudan and a south that demanded more regional autonomy.
*1955–1970: The [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (UPC) engages in a guerrilla struggle against French colonialism in the [[French Cameroons]]. In 1955 the UPC was for all practical purposes banned, and in 1960 Cameroon achieved independence under the conservative government of President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]]. After the gradual assassinations of many of its top leaders and the proclamation of a one-party state in 1966, the last significant remnants of the insurgency were extinguished in 1970. The UPC, unlike many other guerrilla organizations throughout Africa, never achieved state power.
*1956–1959: The [[Cuban Revolution]] led by Fidel Castro removes the government of General [[Fulgencio Batista]]. By 1962 Cuba had been transformed into a declared [[socialist republic]].
*1956–1962: The [[Border Campaign]] led by the [[Irish Republican Army]] against the British, along the border of the independent [[Republic of Ireland]] and British [[Northern Ireland]].
*1956: The [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungarian Revolution]], a failed workers' and peasants' revolution against the Soviet-supported communist state in Hungary.
*1956: The [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] rebellions against [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] rule broke out in [[Amdo]] and [[Kham]].
*1958: A popular revolt in [[Venezuela]] against military dictator [[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]] culminates in a civic-military coup d'état.
*1958: The [[Iraqi Revolution]] led by nationalist soldiers abolishes the British-backed monarchy, executes many of its top officials, and begins to assert the country's independence from both Cold War power blocs.
*1959: The failed [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] uprising against [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] rule led to the flight of the [[Dalai Lama]].
*1959: The [[Tutsi]] king of [[Rwanda]] is forced into exile by [[Hutu]] extremists; racial pogroms follow an assassination attempt on Hutu leader [[Grégoire Kayibanda]].

==1960–1969==

[[Image:Praga1968MolotovCoctail.jpg|thumb|Prague, 1968]]
*1961–1991: The [[Eritrean War of Independence]] led by Isaias Afewerki against Ethiopia.
*1961–1975: [[Angola]]n Marxists and other radicals grouped in the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA) begin guerrilla attacks on Portuguese infrastructure. With extensive military assistance from [[Cuba]], the MPLA is able to outmaneuver two rival organizations and establish control of [[Luanda]] in time for independence on November 11, 1975. Civil war between the MPLA government and the anti-communist [[UNITA]] continued on-and-off until 2002, when UNITA leader [[Jonas Savimbi]] was killed.
*1962–1974: The leftist [[African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) wages a revolutionary war of independence in [[Portuguese Guinea]]. In 1973, the independent [[Republic of Guinea-Bissau]] is proclaimed, and the next year the republic's independence is recognized by the reformist military junta in [[Lisbon]].
*1962: The military coup of 1962 in Burma, led by General [[Ne Win]], who became the country's strongman.
*1962: A revolution in northern [[Yemen]] overthrew the imam and established the [[Yemen Arab Republic]].
*1963–1967: The [[Aden Emergency]]: nationalists in British-ruled [[Aden]], with an eye on recent events in North Yemen and in Palestine, declared war on the British under the umbrella of the [[National Liberation Front (Yemen)|National Liberation Front]] (NLF). The UK handed over control to an independent South Yemen in November 1967. In 1969, the moderate president [[Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi]] was edged out in favor of more radical socialists, who convoked a constituent assembly and began to develop the state along Marxist-Leninist lines. The result was the only Communist state in the Arab world, and the first in a Muslim country.
*1964: Following an American school's provocative decision to raise only the [[flag of the United States]], Panamanian students marched into the [[Panama Canal Zone]] with the [[flag of Panama]]. After the latter flag was torn, thousands more become involved, starting huge riots that lasted three days. About 20 people were killed and hundreds more injured.
*1964: The [[Zanzibar Revolution]] overthrew the 157-year-old Arab monarchy, declared the [[People's Republic of Zanzibar]], and began the process of unification with [[Julius Nyerere]]'s [[Tanganyika]].
*1964–1979: The [[Rhodesian Bush War]], also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Liberation Struggle, was a guerrilla war which lasted from July 1964 to 1979 and led to universal suffrage, the end of white-rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia, and the creation of the [[Republic of Zimbabwe]].
*1964: The [[October Revolution (Sudan)|October Revolution]] in [[Sudan]], driven by a general strike and rioting, forced President [[Ibrahim Abboud]] to transfer executive power to a transitional civilian government, and eventually to resign.
*1964–1975: The [[Mozambican Liberation Front]] (FRELIMO), formed in 1962, commenced a guerrilla war against Portuguese colonialism. Independence was granted on June 25, 1975; however, the [[Mozambican Civil War]] complicated the political situation and frustrated FRELIMO's attempts at radical change. The war continued into the early 1990s after the government dropped Marxism as the state ideology.
*1964–present: The [[Colombian Civil War (1964–present)|Colombian Armed Conflict]].
*1965: The [[March Intifada]] in [[Bahrain]]: a [[Leftist]] uprising demanding an end to the [[United Kingdom|British]] presence in [[Bahrain]].
*1966: [[Kwame Nkrumah]] is removed from power in [[Ghana]] by coup d'état.
*1966–1993: A guerrilla warfare was conducted against the repressive government of [[François Tombalbaye]] from the Sudan-based group [[FROLINAT]]. After the killing of field commander [[Ibrahim Abatcha]] in 1968, the movement jettisoned its socialist rhetoric and split into irreconcilable factions that often fought among themselves. Tombalbaye was brought down and executed in a [[Chadian coup of 1975|1975 military coup]], and in 1979 the FROLINAT factions established the [[Transitional Government of National Unity]] (GUNT). This experiment lasted until 1982, when a FROLINAT splinter, led by [[Hissène Habré]], took control of [[N'Djamena]]. Supporters of marginalized GUNT president [[Goukouni Oueddei]] held out for a few years at [[Bardaï, Chad|Bardaï]], but the group eventually dissolved; but a new formation, the [[MPS]], continued the civil war and brought to power in 1990 [[Idriss Déby]].
*1966–1998: The [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] was recreated by militant Protestant British [[Ulster loyalism|loyalists]] in [[Northern Ireland]] to wage war against the [[Irish Republican Army]] and the [[Roman Catholic]] community at large.
*1967–1968 Iraqi communists launched an [[History of iraq#Iraqi republic|insurgency in southern Iraq]].<ref name="tripp2005">{{cite book |title=A History of Iraq|last=Tripp|first=Charles|authorlink=Charles R. H. Tripp|year=2005|pages=188–189,196|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521702478}}</ref>
*1967–1970: [[Biafra]]: The former eastern [[Nigeria]] unsuccessfully fought for a breakaway republic of Biafra, after the mainly Ibo people of the region suffered pogroms in northern Nigeria the previous year.
*1967: The [[Naxalite]] Movement begins in India, led by the [[AICCCR]].
*1967: [[Anguilla]]ns resentful of Kittitian domination of the island expelled the Kittitian police and declared independence from the British colony of [[Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla]]. British forces retook the island in 1969 and made Anguilla a separate dependency in 1980. There was no bloodshed in the entire episode.
*1968: The revolution in the [[Republic of Congo]].
*1968: Student protests and riots in [[Egypt]] in the wake of the [[Six-Day War]] lead to the ratification of the [[March 30 Program]] to deepen democratic processes.
*1968: The [[May 1968 revolt]]: students' and workers' revolt against the government of Charles de Gaulle in France.
*1968: A coup by [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] in Peru, followed by radical social and economic reforms.
*1968: A failed attempt by leader Alexander Dubček to liberalise Czechoslovakia in defiance of the Soviet-supported communist state culminates in the [[Prague Spring]].
*1969–1998: [[The Troubles]]: the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] and other [[Irish Republicanism|Republican Paramilitaries]] waged an armed campaign against British Security forces and [[Ulster Loyalism|Loyalist Paramilitaries]] in an attempt to bring about a [[United Ireland]].
*1969: A mass movement of workers, students, and peasants in [[Pakistan]] forced the resignation of President [[Mohammad Ayub Khan]].
*1969: The overthrow of the pro-Western monarchy by Arab nationalist military officers in [[Libya]].
*1969: [[Somalia]]'s multiparty system supplanted by a military socialist government under Siad Barre.

==1970–1979==

[[File:Imam Khomeini in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|right|upright||[[Khomeini]] returns to Iran after 14 years exile on February 1, 1979]]
*1970: A rebellion in [[Guinea]] by what its government identified as Portuguese agents.
*1971: The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] led by the [[Mukti Bahini]] establishes the independent [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]].
*1972: A revolution in [[Benin]].
*1972: A military-led revolution against the civilian government of President [[Philibert Tsiranana]] in the [[Malagasy Republic]]; a Marxist faction takes power in 1975 under [[Didier Ratsiraka]], modeled on the [[DPRK|North Korean]] ''[[juche]]'' theory developed by [[Kim Il Sung]].
*1973: [[Mohammad Daud]] overthrows the monarchy and establishes a republic in [[Afghanistan]].
*1973: Worker-student demonstrations in [[Thailand]] force dictator [[Thanom Kittikachorn]] and two close associates to flee the country, beginning a short period of democratic constitutional rule.
*1974: A revolution in [[Ethiopia]].
*1974: The [[Carnation Revolution]] overthrows of right-wing dictatorship in Portugal.
*1975: A revolution in [[Cambodia]].
*1975: A revolution in [[Laos]] by guerrilla forces of the Pathet Lao overthrows the monarchy.
*1975: 15 August, coup led by young military officers and the [[Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] in Bangladesh.
*1975: A revolution in [[Cape Verde]].
*1975: Coup led by Brigadier [[Khaled Mosharraf]] and Colonel [[Shafaat Jamil]] in [[Bangladesh]] to depose President [[Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad]]. Three days later a counter-coup by Colonel [[Abu Taher]] puts [[Ziaur Rahman]] in power.
*1976: Student demonstrations and election-related violence in [[Thailand]] lead police to open fire on a sit-in at [[Thammasat University]], killing hundreds. The military seizes power the next day, ending constitutional rule.
*1976:Emergence of Tamil rebels in srilanka.the LTTE (known as tamil tigers) but suppressed brutaly by coialation forces of india,china and sihalese led srilankan armies
*1977: The Market Women's Revolt in [[Guinea]] leads to a lessening of the state's role in the economy.
*1978: The [[Saur Revolution]] led by the Khalq faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan deposes and kills President Mohammad Daud.
*1979: [[New Jewel Movement]] led by [[Maurice Bishop]] launch an armed revolution and overthrow the government of [[Eric Gairy]] in [[Grenada]].
*1979: The popular overthrow of the Somoza dictatorship by progressive/Marxist [[Nicaraguan Revolution]].
*1979: The [[Iranian Revolution]] overthrows the [[Shah]], resulting in the formation of [[History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Islamic republic of Iran]].
*1979: [[Cambodia]] is liberated from the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime by the Vietnam-backed [[Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party]].

==1980–1989==
*1980: National Socialist Council of Nagaland launches its struggel against [[India|Indian]] rule and the establishment of the greater Nagaland.
*1980: The [[Santo Rebellion]] in the Anglo-French [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] of [[New Hebrides]]
*1980–2000: The [[Shining Path|Communist Party of Peru]] launched the [[internal conflict in Peru]].
*1981: [[Assassination of Ziaur Rahman]] in Bangladesh sparks protests and riots.
*1982: General [[Hussain Muhammad Ershad]] seizes power through a bloodless coup, deposing president [[Abdus Sattar]] in Bangladesh.
*1983: Overthrow of the ruling [[Conseil de Salut du peuple]] (CSP) by Marxist forces led by Thomas Sankara in [[Upper Volta]], renamed [[Burkina Faso]] in the following year.
*1983: Prime Minister of Grenada, Maurice Bishop, overthrown and subsequently executed by high-ranking government officials.
*1983–2005: The [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] was largely a continuation of the [[First Sudanese Civil War]], and one of the longest lasting and deadliest wars of the later 20th century.
*1984–1985: Pro-independence [[FLNKS]] forces in [[New Caledonia]] revolt following an election boycott and occupy the town of [[Thio, New Caledonia|Thio]] from November 1984 to January 1985. Thio is retaken by the French after the assassination of [[Éloi Machoro]], the security minister in the FLNKS provisional government and the primary leader of the occupation.<ref>Ibid., pp. 116-126.</ref>
* 1985: [[Soviet]] and [[Afghanistan]] [[P.O.W.]] rose against their captors at [[Badaber Uprising|Badaber]] base.
*1986: The [[People Power Revolution]] peacefully overthrows [[Ferdinand Marcos]] after his two decade rule in the [[Philippines]].
*1986: [[Khalistan Commando Force]] started armed movement for the establishment of [[Khalistan]], an independent Sikh homeland. The movement, as is the case with other Sikh nationalistic movements, was fueled in part by the Indian army's [[Operation Blue Star]]. The armed struggle resulted in thousands of mostly civilian deaths.
*1987–1991: The [[First Intifada]], or the Palestinian uprising, a series of violent incidents between [[Palestinians]] and [[State of Israel|Israelis]].
*1988–1991: The [[Pan-Armenian National Movement]] frees Armenia from Soviet rule.
*1988: The [[8888 Uprising]] In [[Burma]] or Myanmar.
*1989: Armed resistance breaks out in the [[Kashmir]] valley against [[Kashmir conflict|Indian oppression]]<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm Kashmir insurgency]</ref>.
*1989: The [[Singing Revolution]], bloodless overthrow of communist rule in [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]].
*1989: The violent ''[[Caracazo]]'' riots in [[Venezuela]]. In the next few years, there are two attempted coups and President [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]] is impeached.
*1989: The [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] were a series of demonstrations led by students, intellectuals and [[Labour movement|labour activists]] in the [[People's Republic of China]] between 15 April and 4 June 1989.
*1989: The bloodless [[Velvet Revolution]] overthrows the communist regime in [[Czechoslovakia]].
*1989: The [[Romanian Revolution]] violently overthrows the communist state in [[Romania]].

==1990–1999==
[[Image:Evstafiev-helicopter-shot-down.jpg|thumb|right|Russian [[Mil Mi-8]] helicopter downed by Chechens near [[Grozny]], [[December 1994]]]]
*1990-present: [[United Liberation Front of Asom]] launch major violent activities against Indian rule in [[Assam]].To date, the resulting clashes with the Indian army have left more than 10,000 dead<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/2009/01/02/top6.htm Five Dead in Assam - Dawn]</ref>.
*1990–1995: The [[Log Revolution]] in [[Croatia]] starts, triggering the [[Croatian War of Independence]].
*1990–1995: The [[First Tuareg Rebellion]] in [[Niger]] and [[Mali]].
*1991: The [[Iraqi Kurdistan|Kurdish]] uprising against Iraqi President Saddam Hussein in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]].
*1991: The [[1991 Uprising in Karbala|Shiite Uprising]] in [[Karbala]], Iraq.
*1992–1995: [[Bosnian War of Independence]].
*1992: An Afghan uprising against the Taliban by [[United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan]], or the Northern Alliance.
*1994: The [[1990s Uprising in Bahrain]], [[Shiite]]-led rebellion for the restoration of democracy in [[Bahrain]].
*1994: The [[Zapatista Rebellion]]: an uprising in the [[Mexican]] state of [[Chiapas]] demanding equal rights for [[indigenous peoples]] and in opposition to growing [[neoliberalism]] in North America.
*1994–1996: The [[First Chechen War|First Chechen Rebellion]] against [[Russia]].
*1996: An Islamic movement in Afghanistan led by the [[Taliban]] established Taliban rule.
*1997: The [[1997 rebellion in Albania]] sparked by [[Ponzi scheme]] failures.
*1997–1999: The [[Kosovo Liberation Army#Kosovo War (1997-1999)|Kosovo Rebellion]] against [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].
*1998: The election in Venezuela of socialist leader Hugo Chávez is called the [[Bolivarian Revolution]].
*1998: The [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998]] resulted the resignation of President [[Suharto]] after three decades of the [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]] period.
*1999–present: The [[Second Chechen War|Second Chechen Rebellion]] against Russia.
*1999: The [[Iran student protests, July 1999]] were, at the time, the most violent protests to occur against the islamic regime of Iran.

==2000–present==

*2000–present: The [[Second Intifada]] a continuation of the [[First Intifada]]. The wave of violence that began in September 2000 between [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] Arabs and [[Israel]]is.
*2000: The bloodless [[Bulldozer Revolution]], first of the four [[colour revolutions]], overthrows Slobodan Milošević's régime in Yugoslavia.
*2001: The [[2001 Macedonia conflict]].
*2001–present: The [[Taliban insurgency]] following the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|2001 war in Afghanistan]] which overthrow Taliban rule.
*2001: The [[2001 EDSA Revolution]] peacefully ousts [[List of Presidents of the Philippines|Philippine President]] [[Joseph Estrada]] after the collapse of his [[impeachment]] [[trial]].
*2001: Supporters of Philippines [[List of Presidents of the Philippines|former president]] [[Joseph Estrada]] violently and unsuccessfully stage a rally, so-called the [[EDSA Tres]], in an attempt of returning him to power.
*2003: The [[Rose Revolution]], second of the [[colour revolutions]], displaces the president of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Eduard Shevardnadze]], and calls new elections.
*2003–present: The [[Iraqi insurgency]] refers to the armed resistance by diverse groups within [[Iraq]] to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|U.S. occupation of Iraq]] and to the establishment of a [[liberal democracy]] therein.
*2003–present: The [[Darfur]] rebellion led by the two major rebel groups, the [[Sudan Liberation Movement]] (SLM/A) and the [[Justice and Equality Movement]], recruited primarily from the land-tilling [[Fur people|Fur]], [[Zaghawa]], and [[Massaleit]] ethnic groups.
*2004–present: The [[Mahdi Army#2004 Shi'ite Uprising|Shi'ite Uprising]] against the [[Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–2006|US-led occupation of Iraq]].
*2004: After [[Viktor Yanukovych]] was declared the winner of a presidential election in [[Ukraine]], the [[Orange Revolution]] arose and installed him as president, believing the election to have been fraudulent. This was the third [[colour revolution]].
*2004: A failed attempt at popular colour-style revolution in [[Azerbaijan]], led by the groups [[Yox!]] and [[Freedom (Azerbaijan)|Azadlig]].
*2004–present: The [[Naxalite]] insurgency in [[India]], led by the [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)]].
*2005: The [[Cedar Revolution]], triggered by the [[assassination]] of former Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]], asks for the withdrawal of [[Syria]]n troops from [[Lebanon]].
*2005: The [[Tulip Revolution]] (a.k.a. Pink/Yellow Revolution) overthrows the President of [[Kyrgyzstan]], Askar Akayev, and set new elections. This is the fourth [[colour revolution]].
*2006–present: [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal]].
*2006: The [[2006 Oaxaca protests]] demanding the removal of [[Ulises Ruiz Ortiz]], the governor of [[Oaxaca]] state in [[Mexico]].
*2006-present: The [[Mexican Drug War]].
*2007: The popular uprising against the terrorist organization [[al-Qa'eda]] by residents of [[Anbar Province]], [[Iraq]].<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/10/08/wanbar308.xml Iraq insurgency: People rise against al-Qa'eda]</ref>
*2007–present: The [[Civil war in Ingushetia]] within [[Russia]].
*2007–2009: The [[Second Tuareg Rebellion]] in [[Niger]].
*2007: The [[2007 Burmese anti-government protests|Burmese anti-government protests]], including the Saffron Revolution of Burmese Buddhist monks.
* 2008: A [[Mahdi Army#March 2008 Iraqi security forces crackdown|Shiite uprising]] in [[Basra]].
* 2009: After the disputed [[Iranian presidential election, 2009]], an uprising started in [[Iran]], which was nominated by its main slogan [[Where is my vote?]].
* 2009: [[2009 Bangladesh Rifles revolt]] took place in [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]] killing 57 army officers.
* 2009: In january, a popular uprising called the saucepan revolution brought down the Icelandic government [[2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests]], after the collapse of the Icelandic financial system in october 2008.

== Cultural, intellectual, philosophical and technological revolutions ==

[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|A [[Watt steam engine]] in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] propelled the [[Industrial Revolution]] in [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and the world. The steam engine was created to [[pump]] water from [[coal mine]]s, enabling them to be deepened beyond [[groundwater]] levels.]]

The term '''revolution''' is also used to denote trends which have resulted in great social changes outside the political sphere, such as changes in mores, culture, philosophy or technology. Many have been global, while others have been limited to single countries. Such revolutions include, in alphabetical order:

* The [[Agricultural Revolution]]s, which include:
** The [[Neolithic Revolution]] (perhaps 13000 years ago), which formed the basis for human civilization to develop. It is commonly referred to as the 'First Agricultural Revolution'.
** The [[Green Revolution]] (1945–): The use of industrial fertilizers and new crops greatly increased the world's agricultural output. It is commonly referred to as the 'Second Agricultural Revolution'.
** The [[British Agricultural Revolution]] (18th century), which spurred urbanisation and consequently helped launch the [[Industrial Revolution]].
** The [[Scottish Agricultural Revolution]] (18th century), which led to the [[Lowland Clearances]].
* The [[Commercial Revolution]]: A period of [[Europe]]an economic expansion, [[colonialism]], and [[mercantilism]] which lasted from approximately the sixteenth century until the early eighteenth century.
* The [[Counterculture of the 1960s]] (approximately 1960–1973) was a social revolution that originated in the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]], and eventually spread to other western nations. The themes of this movement included the [[anti-war movement]], rebellion against conservative norms, drug use, and the [[sexual revolution]] (see below).
** The [[Sexual revolution]]: A change in sexual morality and sexual behavior throughout the Western world, mainly during the 1960s and 1970s.
* The [[Cultural Revolution]]: A struggle for power within the [[Communist Party of China]], which grew to include large sections of Chinese society and eventually brought the People's Republic of China to the brink of civil war, and which lasted from 1966 to 1976.
* The [[Digital Revolution]]: The sweeping changes brought about by [[computing]] and [[communication technology]], starting from circa 1950 with the creation of the first general-purpose [[electronic computer]]s.
* The [[Industrial Revolution]]: The major shift of technological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that began in Britain and spread throughout the world.
** The [[Second Industrial Revolution]] (1871–1914).
* The [[Price revolution]]: A series of economic events from the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th, the price revolution refers most specifically to the high rate of inflation that characterized the period across [[Western Europe]].
* The [[Quiet Revolution]]: A period of rapid change in [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], in the 1960s. This leads to the separatist movement for Quebec sovereignty and two referendums.
* The [[Scientific revolution]]: A fundamental transformation in scientific ideas around the 16th century.
* The [[Upper Paleolithic Revolution]]: The emergence of "high culture", new technologies and regionally distinct cultures.

==References==

{{reflist}}

==See also==
{{multicol}}
* [[List of fictional rebellions]]
* [[List of wars of independence (national liberation)]]
* [[List of civil wars]]
* [[List of coups d'état and coup attempts]]
* [[List of riots]]
* [[List of strikes]]
* [[List of usurpers]]
* [[Mutiny]]
* [[Revolution]]
* [[Revolutionary wave]]
* [[Peasant revolt]]
* [[General strike]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Guerrilla warfare]]
* [[List of guerrillas]]
* [[List of military commanders]]
* [[Ghetto uprising]]
* [[Slave rebellion]]
* [[Janissary revolts]]
* [[Insurgency]]
* [[Nonviolent resistance]]
* [[List of Polish wars#Polish uprisings|Polish uprisings]]
* [[Chinese rebellions]]
* [[Resistance during World War II]]
* [[Popular revolt in late medieval Europe]]
{{multicol-end}}

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Sociability

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:10:45 GMT

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# The skill, tendency or property of being [[sociable]] or [[social]], of interacting well with others.
#: ''A true introvert, his '''sociability''' lagged behind others his age in the school.''

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Historiography of the Salon

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:10:16 GMT

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The [[Salon (gathering)|salons]] of [[Early Modern]] and [[Revolutionary France]] played an integral role in the cultural and intellectual development of [[France]]. The salons were seen by contemporary writers as a cultural hub, responsible for the dissemination of good manners and [[sociability]]. It was not merely manners that the salons supposedly spread but also ideas, as the salons became a centre of [[intellectual]] as well as social exchange, playing host to many members of the [[Republic of Letters]]. Women, in contrast to other Early Modern institutions, played an important and visible role within the salons. The extent of this role is, however, heavily contested by some [[historians]].

The role that the salons played in the process of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and particularly the fact that women played such an integral part in them, means that there is an abundance of historical debate surrounding them. The relationship with the [[Sovereign state|state]] and the [[public sphere]], the role of women, as well as their form and [[periodisation]] are all important factors in the [[historiography]] of the salon.

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Subaltern Studies

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:04:45 GMT

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The '''Subaltern Studies Group''' (SSG) or '''Subaltern Studies Collective''' are a group of [[South Asian]] scholars interested in the [[postcolonial]] and post-[[empire|imperial]] societies of South Asia in particular and the developing world in general. The term '''Subaltern Studies''' is sometimes also applied more broadly to others who share many of their views. Their approach is one of [[history from below]], focused more on what happens among the masses at the base levels of society than among the elite.

==Definition==
The term "[[subaltern]]" in this context is an allusion to the work of [[Italy|Italian]] [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Antonio Gramsci]] (1881–1937). Literally, it refers to any person or group of inferior rank and station, whether because of [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[social class|class]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], [[ethnicity]], or [[religion]].

The SSG arose in the 1980s, influenced by the scholarship of [[Eric Stokes (historian)|Eric Stokes]], to attempt to formulate a new narrative of the history of India and South Asia. This narrative strategy most clearly inspired by the writings of Gramsci was explicated in the writings of their "mentor" [[Ranajit Guha]], most clearly in his "manifesto" in Subaltern Studies I and also in his classic monograph ''The Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency''. Although they are, in a sense, on the [[left-wing politics|left]], they are very critical of the traditional Marxist narrative of Indian history, in which semi-[[feudal]] India was colonized by the [[United Kingdom|British]], became politicized, and earned its [[independence]]. In particular, they are critical of the focus of this narrative on the political consciousness of elites, who in turn inspire the masses to resistance and rebellion against the British.

Instead, they focus on non-elites — subalterns — as agents of political and social change. They have had a particular interest in the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, as against only highly visible actions like [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]] and [[Rebellion|uprisings]].

==People associated with Subaltern Studies==

The Subaltern Studies group was founded by Ranajit Guha. In more recent times, some former members have become disillusioned with
the post-modern turn that the group has taken (notably Sumit Sarkar who left the group).

Scholars associated with Subaltern Studies include:

* [[Touraj Atabaki]]
* [[Shahid Amin]]
* [[David Arnold (historian)|David Arnold]]
* [[Gautam Bhadra]]
* [[Dipesh Chakrabarty]]
* [[Partha Chatterjee]]
* [[Ranajit Guha]]
* [[David Hardiman]]
* [[Sudipta Kaviraj]]
* [[Lata Mani]]
* [[Shail Mayaram]]
* [[Gyan Pandey]]
* [[M.S.S Pandian]]
* [[Gyan Prakash]]
* [[Edward Said]]
* [[Sumit Sarkar]] (later dissented)
* [[Ajay Skaria]]
* [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]]
* [[Susie Tharu]]
* sanal mohan
==See also==

* [[Latin American subaltern studies]]

==Further reading==
* Young, Robert, ''White Mythologies''. Routledge, 1990, reissued 2004. Several associated ISBNs, including ISBN 0-415-31181-0, ISBN 0-415-31180-2.
*Ludden, David, ed., ''Reading Subaltern Studies. Critical History, Contested Meaning and the Globalization of South Asia'', London 2001.
*Chaturvedi, Vinayak, ed., ''Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial''. London and New York 2000.

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New labor history

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:03:57 GMT

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'''New labor history''' is a branch of [[Labor history (discipline)|labor history]] which focuses on the experiences of workers, women, and minorities in the study of history. It is heavily influenced by [[social history]].

Before the 1960s, most labor historians around the world focused on the history of [[trade union|labor unions]]. In the United States, for example, labor economists at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison|University of Wisconsin]] dominated the academic discipline of labor history. Paramount in their research were the development of markets, trade unions, and political philosophies.

In the 1950s, British and other European historians developed the field of social history to correct the [[structuralism|structuralist]] imbalances they perceived in the study of history. Social historians not only sought to enlarge the study of history but to refocus it on the experiences of common people rather than institutions or elites.

British social historians such as [[E. P. Thompson]], in particular, had a significant impact on American labor historians. Labor scholars to the right and left of the American political spectrum found it difficult to explain the rise of labor in the late 19th century, and social history offered at least a new approach to solving the riddle. Social history also took root at the same time that American organized labor began to decline. For left-leaning labor scholars, social history suggested a new way to revitalize the U.S. labor movement by focusing attention away from conservative leaders and institutions, as well as a means for academics to engage with workers themselves. For some, the new labor history moved the discipline of labor history away from the [[Marxism|Marxist]] theoretical perspective that saw trade union movements in terms of elites, classes and institutions (see Rogin, 2002).

European and American critics of the "new labor history" charge that historians now neglect institutions and elites. They argue that labor leaders and unions shape workers' goals and values as much as reflect them. They also point out that the "new labor history" has a tendency to ignore larger cultural trends and movements and technological developments which operate on a more systemic level than the individual.

Especially in the U.S., many young labor historians are attempting a new synthesis of the "old" and "new" labor histories.

==Examples of "new labor history" scholars==
*[[David Brody]]
*[[Melvyn Dubofsky]]
*[[Herbert Gutman]]
*[[David Montgomery (historian)|David Montgomery]]
*[[E. P. Thompson]]
*[[Chitra Joshi]]
*[[Prabhu Mohapatra]]

==Examples of "old" labor history scholars==
*[[John R. Commons]]
*[[John Thomas Dunlop]]
*[[Joseph Rayback]]
*[[Philip Taft]]

==References==
*Brody, David. "Reconciling the Old Labor History and the New," ''Pacific Historical Review'' 72 (February 1993), 111-126.
*Brody, David. "The Old Labor History and the New: In Search of an American Working Class," ''Labor History'' 20 (Winter 1979), 11-26.
*Buhle, Mary Jo and Buhle, Paul. "The New Labor History at the Cultural Crossroads." ''Journal of American History.'' 75:1 (June 1988).
*Dubofsky, Melvyn. "The 'New' Labor History: Achievements and Failures." ''Reviews in American History.'' 5:2 (June 1977).
*Fink, Leon. "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor." ''Journal of American History.'' 75:1 (June 1988).
*Gerstle, Gary, preface to the Princeton Edition, ''Working-Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960'', (reprinted Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002), xi-xxiv. ISBN 0691089116
*Kimeldorf, Howard. "Bringing the Unions Back in (Or Why We Need a New Old labor History)," with responses by Michael Kazin, Alice Kessler- Harris, David Montgomery, Bruce Nelson, and Daniel Nelson, ''Labor History'' 32 (1991), 91-129.
*Painter, Nell Irvin. "The New Labor History and the Historical Moment." ''International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society.'' 2:3 (March 1989).
*Rogin, Michael. "How the Working Class Saved Capitalism: The New Labor History and 'The Devil and Miss Jones.' " ''Journal of American History.'' 89:1 (June 2002).

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Alltagsgeschichte

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 11:03:46 GMT

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'''Alltagsgeschichte''' is a form of [[microhistory]] that was particularly prevalent amongst German historians during the 1980s.

The name comes from German, where ''Alltag'' means "everyday life"; it can thus be roughly translated as "everyday history".

In this sense, Alltagsgeschichte can be considered part of the wider Marxian historical school of '[[history from below]]'.

The purpose of Alltagsgeschichte is to find and prove the links between the down-to-earth, everyday, basic experiences of ordinary people in a society, and the broad social and political changes which occur in that society. Because this is such a massively broad endeavour to undertake, it can only feasibly be practised on the most minute of scales. Thus Alltagsgeschichte becomes a form of microhistory.

Alltagsgeschichte can also be linked to the Italian historical doctrine of Microstoria ([[Microhistory]]).

==Publications==

*''The History of Everyday Life'' by German historian Alf Lüdtke.

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Penny University

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 09:39:33 GMT

Summary:

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'''Penny University''' is a term originating from the eighteenth century [[coffeehouse]]s in [[London]], [[England]]. Instead of paying for drinks, people were charged a penny to enter a coffee house. Once inside, the patron had access to coffee, the company of others, various discussions, pamphlets, bulletins, newspapers, and the latest news and gossip. Reporters called "runners" went around to the coffee houses announcing the latest news, perhaps not too unlike what we might hear on the TV or the radio today.

This environment attracted an eclectic group of people that met and mingled with each other at these coffee houses. In a society that placed such a high importance on class and economic status, the coffee houses were unique because the patrons were people from all levels of society. Anyone who had a penny could come inside. Students from the universities also frequented the coffee houses, sometimes even spending more time at the shops than at school.

Since that time, various coffee shops all over the world have used the name "Penny University".

The original sense, of a [[coffeehouse|coffee house]], probably grew out of a common experience: that you came out of a coffeehouse feeling ten times as smart as you were when you went in (as [[Montesquieu]] observed in ''The Persian Letters''). As, indeed, wide-ranging conversations ensued therein, from the commercial (leading to the founding of, in London, [[Lloyd's of London]], and in New York, the [[New York Stock Exchange]]) to the political, and the purely intellectual; the idea that one could acquire an education for the price of a cup of [[coffee]], that is, a penny, took hold of the poetic imagination.

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Procopio Cutò

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 09:38:31 GMT

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'''Procopio Cutò''', or '''Francesco Procopio Cutò''' or '''Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli''' was a [[Sicilian people|Sicilian]] chef. Billing himself as a modern [[Procopius]], he founded in 1686 what has become the oldest extant cafe in Paris, [[Café Procope]]. It became the first [[literary]] [[coffeehouse]]. For over 200 years the cafe-restaurant attracted notables in the world of arts, politics, and literature.
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Hébert

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 09:37:21 GMT

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'''Hébert''' or '''Hebert''' is a surname, and may refer to:

* [[Anne Hébert]], Canadian author and poet
* [[Bobby Hebert]], National Football League player
* [[Chantal Hébert]], Canadian political commentator
* [[Chris Hebert]], American actress
* [[Edmond Hébert]], French geologist
* [[Ernest Hébert]], French painter
* [[Felix Hebert]], United States Senator from Rhode Island
* [[Felix Edward Hébert]], member of the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana
* [[Georges Hébert]] a French physical education practitioner, theorist and instructor.
* [[Guy Hebert]], National Hockey League player
* [[Jacques Hébert]], French Revolution figure
* [[Jacques Hébert (Canadian politician)]]
* [[Jay Hebert]], American golfer
* [[Jean-Pierre Hébert]], American artist
* [[Kyle Hebert]], American voice actor
* [[Kyries Hebert]], American football player
* [[Lionel Hebert]], American golfer
* [[Louis Hébert]], early Quebec farmer
* [[Paul D.N. Hebert]], Canadian biologist
* [[Paul M. Hebert]], judge at the Nuremberg Tribunals
* [[Paul Octave Hebert]], governor of Louisiana
* [[Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert]], French sculptor
* Richard D. Hebert III, Alumni of Lakeland Regional High School, current William Paterson undergraduate.
* [[Sammy Hebert]], Canadian hockey player
* [[Scott P. Hebert]], Six time winner of the Michigan Open Golf Tournament

==See also==

* [[Hebert Arboretum]], Massachusetts
* [[Hebert Road]], St. Albert, Alberta
* [[Paul M. Hebert Law Center]], part of the Louisiana State University
* [[Herbert]]
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Système social

Jahsonic — Tue, 09 Feb 2010 09:31:04 GMT

Summary:

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'''''Système Social, ou Principes naturels de la morale et de la Politique, avec un examen de l'influence du gouvernement sur les mœurs''''' (1773) is a book by [[Baron d'Holbach]].
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