Literacy
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| Although the history of literacy goes back several thousand years to the [[History of writing|invention of writing]], what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other times, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular. Even earlier, literacy was a trade secret of professional scribes, and many historic monarchies maintained cadres of this profession, sometimes—as was the case for [[Imperial Aramaic]]—even importing them from lands where a completely alien language was spoken and written. | Although the history of literacy goes back several thousand years to the [[History of writing|invention of writing]], what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other times, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular. Even earlier, literacy was a trade secret of professional scribes, and many historic monarchies maintained cadres of this profession, sometimes—as was the case for [[Imperial Aramaic]]—even importing them from lands where a completely alien language was spoken and written. | ||
| - | In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to read a particular passage from the Bible entitled a [[common law]] defendant to the so-called [[benefit of clergy]] provision, which entitled a person to be tried before an [[ecclesiastical court]], where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence. This opened the door to literate lay defendants also claiming the right to the benefit of clergy provision, and—because the Biblical passage used for the literacy test was inevitably [[Psalm 51]]—an illiterate person who had memorized the appropriate verse could also claim the benefit of clergy provision. | + | In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to read a particular passage from the Bible entitled a [[common law]] defendant to the so-called [[benefit of clergy]] provision, which entitled a person to be tried before an [[ecclesiastical court]], where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence. This opened the door to literate lay defendants also claiming the right to the benefit of clergy provision, and—because the Biblical passage used for the [[literacy test]] was inevitably [[Psalm 51]]—an illiterate person who had memorized the appropriate verse could also claim the benefit of clergy provision. |
| By the mid-18th century, the ability to read and comprehend translated scripture led to [[Wales]] having one of the highest literacy rates. This was the result of a [[Griffith Jones (Llanddowror)|Griffith Jones]]'s system of circulating schools, which aimed to enable everyone to read the [[Bible]] in Welsh. Similarly, at least half the population of 18th century [[New England]] was literate, perhaps as a consequence of the [[Puritan]] belief in the importance of [[Bible]] reading. By the time of the [[American Revolution]], literacy in New England is suggested to have been around 90 percent. | By the mid-18th century, the ability to read and comprehend translated scripture led to [[Wales]] having one of the highest literacy rates. This was the result of a [[Griffith Jones (Llanddowror)|Griffith Jones]]'s system of circulating schools, which aimed to enable everyone to read the [[Bible]] in Welsh. Similarly, at least half the population of 18th century [[New England]] was literate, perhaps as a consequence of the [[Puritan]] belief in the importance of [[Bible]] reading. By the time of the [[American Revolution]], literacy in New England is suggested to have been around 90 percent. | ||
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The traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write, or the ability to use language to read, write, listen, and speak. The history of literacy goes back several thousand years, but before the industrial revolution finally made cheap paper and cheap books available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of the population in these countries were literate. Up until that point, materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions. For example, in England in 1841, 33% of men and 44% of women signed marriage certificates with their mark as they were unable to write. Only in 1870 was government-financed public primary education made available in England.
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Pulp and literacy
The history of literacy goes back several thousand years, but before the industrial revolution finally made cheap paper and cheap books available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of the population in these countries were literate. Up until that point, materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions.
History
Although the history of literacy goes back several thousand years to the invention of writing, what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other times, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular. Even earlier, literacy was a trade secret of professional scribes, and many historic monarchies maintained cadres of this profession, sometimes—as was the case for Imperial Aramaic—even importing them from lands where a completely alien language was spoken and written.
In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to read a particular passage from the Bible entitled a common law defendant to the so-called benefit of clergy provision, which entitled a person to be tried before an ecclesiastical court, where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence. This opened the door to literate lay defendants also claiming the right to the benefit of clergy provision, and—because the Biblical passage used for the literacy test was inevitably Psalm 51—an illiterate person who had memorized the appropriate verse could also claim the benefit of clergy provision.
By the mid-18th century, the ability to read and comprehend translated scripture led to Wales having one of the highest literacy rates. This was the result of a Griffith Jones's system of circulating schools, which aimed to enable everyone to read the Bible in Welsh. Similarly, at least half the population of 18th century New England was literate, perhaps as a consequence of the Puritan belief in the importance of Bible reading. By the time of the American Revolution, literacy in New England is suggested to have been around 90 percent.
The ability to read did not necessarily imply the ability to write. The 1686 church law (kyrkolagen) of the Kingdom of Sweden (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, Finland, and Estonia) enforced literacy on the people and by the end of the 18th century, the ability to read was close to 100 percent. But as late as the 19th century, many Swedes, especially women, could not write.
Although the present-day concepts of literacy have much to do with the 15th century invention of the movable type printing press, it was not until the industrial revolution of the mid-19th century that paper and books became financially affordable to all classes of industrialized society. Until then, only a small percentage of the population were literate as only wealthy individuals and institutions could afford the prohibitively expensive materials. As late as 1841, 33% of all Englishmen and 44% of Englishwomen signed marriage certificates with their mark as they were unable to write (government-financed public education became available in England in 1870). Even as of 2008, the dearth of cheap paper and books is a barrier to universal literacy in some less-industrialized nations.
From another perspective, the historian Harvey Graff has argued that the introduction of mass schooling was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. According to Graff, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. In his view, mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.
Literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power. Because literacy permits learning and communication that oral and sign language alone cannot, illiteracy has been enforced in some places as a way of preventing unrest or revolution. During the Civil War era in the United States, white citizens in many areas banned teaching slaves to read or write presumably understanding the power of literacy. In the years following the Civil War, the ability to read and write was used to determine whether one had the right to vote. This effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo.
Between 1500 and 1800, the approaches to reading changed as well. Briggs and Burke (2002) give examples of five types of reading changes.
Critical reading
The increasing number of texts available, due to the printing press, allowed readers to compare and contrast varying opinions and accounts. Reading was not always critical: there is evidence to suggest that books were at times revered and were taken as an absolute truth.
Dangerous reading
Private reading was at times viewed dangerous. It was argued that reading acted as a tranquilliser and was especially dangerous when practised by subordinate groups such as ‘common people’ or women. At the conclusion of the sixteenth-century, and later on, unsupervised reading was considered subversive by secular and theocratic authorities.
From the early sixteenth century onwards it was viewed as especially dangerous for women to read fiction. This notion originated from men who feared fiction for its potential to evoke dangerous emotions such as love.
Creative reading
Creative reading is spawned by the prospect that texts can and are read in ways divergent to the author’s intentions. In a sixteenth century heresy trial an Italian miller, Menocchio, was questioned as to what books he read. The Inquisition was less concerned with what Menocchio actually read, and more in his interpretations of reading.
Extensive reading
In the late eighteenth century a reading revolution of sorts was experienced. With a wide variety of sources available and an increasing literacy rate, books were consulted for information on specific topics. Consequently the practices of skimming, browsing and chapter hopping became prevalent.
Private reading
Books changed in format to accommodate skimming and browsing. Books were broken down into chapters and further into paragraphs, with notes in the margins of the page to assist in the summarisation of sections of text. Features such as table of contents and indexes were also added to books to assist readers in locating specific information. Smaller books were introduced into the market that reflected the privatisation of reading. This shift in reading is directly associated with the rise of individualism; reflected in popular eighteenth century images of men and women reading alone, seemingly unaware of that around them.
See also
