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-	The '''history of [[painting]]''' reaches back in time to artifacts from pre-historic humans, and spans all cultures, that represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from Antiquity. Across cultures, and spanning continents and millennia, the history of painting is an ongoing river of creativity, that continues into the 21st century. Until the early 20th century it relied primarily on [[Representational art|representational]], [[Religious art|religious]] and [[Classical antiquity|classical]] motifs, after which time more purely [[Abstract art|abstract]] and [[Conceptual art|conceptual]] approaches gained favor.	+
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-	Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in [[Western painting]], in general, a few centuries earlier. [[Chinese art]], and [[Japanese art]] each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa.	+
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-	''Recommended articles: [[20th century Western painting]], [[Western painting]], [[Painting]], [[Outline of painting history]]''.	+
-	==Pre-history==	+
-	:''[[cave of the hands]]''	+
-	The oldest known paintings are at the [[Grotte Chauvet]] in France, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using [[red ochre]] and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth or humans often hunting. There are examples of [[cave painting]]s all over the world—in France, India, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia etc. Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people that made them. Prehistoric men may have painted animals to "catch" their [[soul]] or [[spirit]] in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent an [[animistic]] vision and homage to surrounding [[nature]], or they may be the result of a basic need of expression that is [[innate]] to human beings, or they could have been for the transmission of practical information.	+
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-	In [[Paleolithic]] times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare. Mostly, animals were painted, not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the [[rhinoceros]] or large [[Felidae]], as in the [[Chauvet Cave]]. Signs like dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include [[handprint]]s and half-human / animal figures. The Chauvet Cave in the [[Ardèche]] [[Departments of France]] contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the Paleolithic era, painted around 31,000 BC. The [[Altamira (cave)|Altamira]] cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BC and show, among others, [[bison]]s. The hall of bulls in [[Lascaux]], [[Dordogne]], France, is one of the best known cave paintings from about 15,000 to 10,000 BC.	+
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-	If there is meaning to the paintings, it remains unknown. The caves were not in an inhabited area, so they may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs which suggest a possible magic use. Arrow-like symbols in [[Lascaux]] are sometimes interpreted as [[calendar]] or [[almanac]] use. But the evidence remains inconclusive. The most important work of the [[Mesolithic]] era were the ''marching warriors,'' a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, [[Castellón (province)|Castellón]], Spain dated to about 7,000 to 4,000 BC. The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock. The paintings are quite naturalistic, though stylized. The figures are not three-dimensional, even though they overlap	+
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-	The earliest known Indian paintings (see section below) were the rock paintings of [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times, the [[petroglyph]]s as found in places like the [[Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka]], (see above) and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of [[Ajanta]], [[Maharashtra]] [[States and territories of India|state]] present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.	+
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-	==Eastern painting==	+
-	===East Asian painting===	+
-	''See also [[Chinese painting]], [[Japanese painting]], [[Korean painting]].''	+
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-	China, Japan and Korea have a strong tradition in painting which is also highly attached to the art of [[calligraphy]] and [[printmaking]] (so much that it is commonly seen as painting). Far east traditional painting is characterized by water based techniques, less realism, "elegant" and stylized subjects, graphical approach to depiction, the importance of [[white space (visual arts)|white space]] (or [[negative space]]) and a preference for [[landscape]] (instead of human figure) as a subject. Beyond ink and color on silk or paper scrolls, gold on [[lacquer]] was also a common medium in painted East Asian artwork. Although silk was a somewhat expensive medium to paint upon in the past, the invention of [[paper]] during the 1st century AD by the Han court eunuch [[Cai Lun]] provided not only a cheap and widespread medium for writing, but also a cheap and widespread medium for painting (making it more accessible to the public).	+
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-	The ideologies of [[Confucianism]], [[Daoism]], and [[Buddhism]] played important roles in East Asian art. Medieval Song Dynasty painters such as [[Lin Tinggui]] and his ''Luohan Laundering'' [http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/singleObject.cfm?ObjectId=1691] (housed in the [[Smithsonian]] [[Freer Gallery of Art]]) of the 12th century are excellent examples of Buddhist ideas fused into classical Chinese artwork. In the latter painting on silk (image and description provided in the link), bald-headed Buddhist [[Arhat|Luohan]] are depicted in a practical setting of washing clothes by a river. However, the painting itself is visually stunning, with the Luohan portrayed in rich detail and bright, opaque colors in contrast to a hazy, brown, and bland wooded environment. Also, the tree tops are shrouded in swirling fog, providing the common "negative space" mentioned above in East Asian Art.	+
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-	In [[Japonisme]], late 19th century artists like the [[Impressionists]], [[Vincent van Gogh|Van Gogh]], [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]] and [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler|Whistler]] admired traditional Japanese [[Ukiyo-e]] artists like [[Hokusai]] and [[Hiroshige]] and their work was influenced by it.	+
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-	====Chinese painting====	+
-	The earliest (surviving) examples of Chinese painted artwork date to the [[Warring States|Warring States Period]] (481 - 221 BC), with paintings on silk or tomb murals on rock, brick, or stone. They were often in simplistic stylized format and in more-or-less rudimentary geometric patterns. They often depicted mythological creatures, domestic scenes, labor scenes, or palatial scenes filled with officials at court. Artwork during this period and the subsequent [[Qin Dynasty]] (221 - 207 BC) and [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC - 220 AD) was made not as a means in and of itself or for higher personal expression. Rather artwork was created to symbolize and honor funerary rights, representations of mythological deities or spirits of ancestors, etc. Paintings on silk of court officials and domestic scenes could be found during the Han Dynasty, along with scenes of men hunting on horseback or partaking in military parade. There was also painting on three dimensional works of art on figurines and statues, such as the original-painted colors covering the soldier and horse statues of the [[Terracotta Army]]. During the social and cultural climate of the ancient [[Eastern Jin Dynasty]] (316 - 420 AD) based at Nanjing in the south, painting became one of the official pastimes of [[Confucian]]-taught bureaucratic officials and [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocrats]] (along with music played by the [[guqin]] zither, writing fanciful [[calligraphy]], and writing and reciting of [[poetry]]). Painting became a common form of artistic self-expression, and during this period painters at court or amongst elite social circuits were judged and ranked by their peers.	+
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-	The establishment of classical Chinese landscape painting is accredited largely to the [[Eastern Jin Dynasty]] artist [[Gu Kaizhi]] (344 - 406 AD), one of the most famous artists of Chinese history. Like the elongated scroll scenes of Kaizhi, [[Tang Dynasty]] (618 - 907 AD) Chinese artists like [[Wu Daozi]] painted vivid and highly detailed artwork on long horizontal handscrolls (which were very popular during the Tang), such as his ''Eighty Seven Celestial People''. Painted artwork during the Tang period pertained the effects of an idealized landscape environment, with sparse amount of objects, persons, or activity, as well as monochromatic in nature (example: the murals of Price Yide's tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum). There were also figures such as early Tang-era painter [[Zhan Ziqian]], who painted superb landscape paintings that were well ahead of his day in portrayal of realism. However, landscape art did not reach greater level of maturity and realism in general until the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] period (907 - 960 AD). During this time, there were exceptional landscape painters like [[Dong Yuan]] (refer to this article for an example of his artwork), and those who painted more vivid and realistic depictions of domestic scenes, like [[Gu Hongzhong]] and his ''Night Revels of Han Xizai''.	+
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-	During the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]] (960 - 1279 AD), not only landscape art was improved upon, but portrait painting became more standardized and sophisticated than before (for example, refer to [[Emperor Huizong of Song]]), and reached its classical age maturity during the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368 - 1644 AD). During the late 13th century and first half of the 14th century, Chinese under the [[Mongol]]-controlled [[Yuan Dynasty]] were not allowed to enter higher posts of government (reserved for Mongols or other ethnic groups from Central Asia), and the [[Imperial examination]] was ceased for the time being. Many Confucian-educated Chinese who now lacked profession turned to the arts of painting and theatre instead, as the Yuan period became one of the most vibrant and abundant eras for Chinese artwork. An example of such would be [[Qian Xuan]] (1235–1305 AD), who was an official of the Song Dynasty, but out of patriotism, refused to serve the Yuan court and dedicated himself to painting. Examples of superb art from this period include the rich and detailed painted murals of the Yongle Palace [http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_artqa/2003-09/24/content_39769.htm][http://www.tcc.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=245&c=55], or "Dachunyang Longevity Palace", of 1262 AD, a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage site. Within the palace, paintings cover an area of more than 1000 square meters, and hold mostly Daoist themes. It was during the Song Dynasty that painters would also gather in social clubs or meetings to discuss their art or others' artwork, the praising of which often led to persuasions to trade and sell precious works of art. However, there were also many harsh critics of others art as well, showing the difference in style and taste amongst different painters. In 1088 AD, the polymath scientist and statesman [[Shen Kuo]] once wrote of the artwork of one [[Li Cheng (painter)|Li Cheng]], who he criticized as follows:	+
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-	:"...Then there was Li Cheng, who when he depicted [[Pavilion (structure)|pavilion]]s and lodges amidst mountains, storeyed buildings, [[pagoda]]s and the like, always used to paint the [[eave]]s as seen from below. His idea was that 'one should look upwards from underneath, just as a man standing on level ground and looking up at the eaves of a pagoda can see its rafters and its cantilever eave rafters'. This is all wrong. In general the proper way of painting a landscape is to see the small from the viewpoint of the large...just as one looks at artificial mountains in gardens (as one walks about). If one applies (Li's method) to the painting of real mountains, looking up at them from below, one can only see one profile at a time, and not the wealth of their multitudinous slopes and profiles, to say nothing of all that is going on in the valleys and [[gorge]]s, and in the lanes and [[courtyard]]s with their dwellings and houses. If we stand to the east of a mountain its western parts would be on the vanishing boundary of far-off distance, and vice-versa. Surely this could not be called a successful painting? Mr. Li did not understand the principle of 'seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large'. He was certainly marvelous at diminishing accurately heights and distances, but should one attach such importance to the angles and corners of buildings?"	+
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-	Although high level of stylization, mystical appeal, and surreal elegance were often preferred over realism (such as in [[shan shui]] style), beginning with the medieval Song Dynasty there were many Chinese painters then and afterwards who depicted scenes of nature that were vividly real. Later Ming Dynasty artists would take after this Song Dynasty emphasis for intricate detail and realism on objects in nature, especially in depictions of animals (such as ducks, swans, sparrows, tigers, etc.) amongst patches of brightly-colored flowers and thickets of brush and wood (a good example would be the anonymous Ming Dynasty painting ''Birds and Plum Blossoms'' [http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/zoomObject.cfm?ObjectId=4693], housed in the Freer Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C.). There were many renowned Ming Dynasty artists; [[Qiu Ying]] is an excellent example of a paramount Ming era painter (famous even in his own day), utilizing in his artwork domestic scenes, bustling palatial scenes, and nature scenes of river valleys and steeped mountains shrouded in mist and swirling clouds. During the Ming Dynasty there were also different and rivaling schools of art associated with painting, such as the [[Wu School]] and the [[Zhe school (painting)|Zhe School]].	+
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-	Classical Chinese painting continued on into the early modern [[Qing Dynasty]], with highly realistic portrait paintings like seen in the late Ming Dynasty of the early 17th century. The portraits of [[Kangxi Emperor]], [[Yongzheng Emperor]], and [[Qianlong Emperor]] are excellent examples of realistic Chinese portrait painting. During the Qianlong reign period and the continuing 19th century, European [[Baroque]] styles of painting had noticeable influence on Chinese portrait paintings, especially with painted visual effects of lighting and shading. Likewise, East Asian paintings and other works of art (such as [[porcelain]] and lacquerware) were highly prized in Europe since initial contact in the 16th century.	+
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-	====Japanese painting====	+
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-	Japanese painting (絵画) is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety on genre and styles. As with the history of Japanese arts in general, the history Japanese painting is a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese [[aesthetics]] and adaptation of imported ideas. [[Ukiyo-e]], "pictures of the floating world", is a genre of Japanese [[woodblock printing|woodblock prints]] (or [[woodcut]]s) and [[painting]]s produced between the 17th and the 20th centuries, featuring motifs of landscapes, the theatre and pleasure quarters. It is the main artistic genre of [[woodblock printing in Japan]]. Japanese printmaking especially from the [[Edo period]] exerted enormous influence on [[Western painting]] in France during the 19th century.	+
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-	===South Asian painting===	+
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-	===Indian painting===	+
-	Indian paintings historically revolved around the religious deities and kings. Indian art is a collective term for several different schools of art that existed in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The paintings varied from large frescoes of [[Ellora]] to the intricate [[Mughal painting|Mughal]] miniature paintings to the metal embellished works from the [[Tanjore]] school. The paintings from the [[Gandhar(city/kingdom)|Gandhar]]-[[Taxila]] are influenced by the [[Persian art|Persian]] works in the west. The eastern style of painting was mostly developed around the [[Nalanda]] school of art. The works are mostly inspired by various scenes from [[Hindu mythology|Indian mythology]].	+
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-	====History====	+
-	The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times, the [[petroglyph]]s as found in places like the [[Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka]], and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of [[Ajanta]], [[Maharashtra]] [[States and territories of India|state]] present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.	+
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-	[[Ajanta Caves]] in [[Maharashtra]], India are [[Rock cut architecture|rock-cut]] cave monuments dating back to the second century [[BCE]] and containing paintings and sculpture considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art	+
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-	;Madhubani painting	+
-	[[Madhubani painting]] is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state, India. The origins of Madhubani painting are shrouded in antiquity.	+
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-	=====Rajput painting=====	+
-	[[Rajput painting]], a style of [[Indian painting]], evolved and flourished, during the 18th century, in the royal courts of [[Rajputana]], India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. Miniatures were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but several manuscripts also contain Rajput paintings, and paintings were even done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelies, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawait.	+
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-	The colors extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used. The preparation of desired colors was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine.	+
-	=====Mughal painting=====	+
-	[[Mughal painting]] is a particular style of [[Indian painting]], generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape during the period of the [[Mughal Empire]] 16th -19th centuries).	+
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-	=====Tanjore painting=====	+
-	[[Tanjore painting]] is an important form of classical [[South India]]n painting native to the town of [[Tanjore]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a period dominated by the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] rulers, who encouraged [[art]] and [[literature]]. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colors, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are [[Hindu]] Gods and Goddesses and scenes from [[Hindu mythology]]. In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after souvenir during festive occasions in South India.	+
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-	The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder or [[zinc oxide]] is mixed with water-soluble [[adhesive]] and applied on the base. To make the base smoother, a mild [[abrasive]] is sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewellery. On top of this, the gold foils are pasted. Finally, [[dyes]] are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings.	+
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-	=====The Madras School=====	+
-	During British rule in India, the crown found that Madras had some of the most talented and intellectual artistic minds in the world. As the British had also established a huge settlement in and around Madras, Georgetown was chosen to establish an institute that would cater to the artistic expectations of the royals in London. This has come to be known as the [[Madras School]]. At first traditional artists were employed to produce exquisite varieties of furniture, metal work, and curios and their work was sent to the royal palaces of the Queen.	+
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-	Unlike the Bengal School where 'copying' is the norm of teaching, the Madras School flourishes on 'creating' new styles, arguments and trends.	+
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-	=====The Bengal School=====	+
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-	The '''Bengal School of Art''' was an influential style of art that flourished in [[British India|India]] during the [[British Raj]] in the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian [[nationalism]], but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators.	+
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-	The Bengal School arose as an [[avant garde]] and nationalist movement reacting against the [[academic art]] styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as [[Raja Ravi Varma]] and in British art schools. Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the [[Western world|West]], the British art teacher [[Ernest Binfield Havel]] attempted to reform the teaching methods at the [[Calcutta School of Art]] by encouraging students to imitate [[Mughal painting|Mughal]] miniatures. This caused immense controversy, leading to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move. Havel was supported by the artist [[Abanindranath Tagore]], a nephew of the poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Tagore painted a number of works influenced by Mughal art, a style that he and Havel believed to be expressive of India's distinct spiritual qualities, as opposed to the "materialism" of the West. Tagore's best-known painting, ''Bharat Mata'' (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations. Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a [[pan-Asianist]] model of art.	+
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-	The Bengal School's influence in India declined with the spread of [[modernist]] ideas in the 1920s. In the post-independence period, [[Indian artists]] showed more adaptability as they borrowed freely from european styles and amalgamated them freely with the Indian motifs to new forms of art. While artists like [[Francis Newton Souza]] and [[Tyeb Mehta]] were more western in their approach, there were others like [[Ganesh Pyne]] and [[Maqbool Fida Husain]] who developed thoroughly indigenous styles of work. Today after the process of liberalization of market in India, the artists are experiencing more exposure to the international art-scene which is helping them in emerging with newer forms of art which were hitherto not seen in India. [[Jitish Kallat]] had shot to fame in the late 90s with his paintings which were both modern and beyond the scope of generic definition. However while artists in India in the new century are trying out new styles, themes and metaphors, it would not have been possible to get such quick recognition without the aid of the business houses which are now entering the art field like they had never before.	+
-	=====Modern Indian painting=====	+
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-	[[Amrita Sher-Gil]] was an [[India]]n [[Painting|painter]], sometimes known as India's [[Frida Kahlo]]; she is also the 'most expensive' woman painter of India.	+
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-	Today, she is amongst ''Nine Masters'', whose work was declared as ''art treasures'' by The [[Archaeological Survey of India]], in 1976 and 1979, and over 100 of her paintings are now displayed at [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], [[New Delhi]].	+
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-	During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art. Some artists developed a style that used Western ideas of composition, perspective and realism to illustrate Indian themes. Others, like [[Jamini Roy]], consciously drew inspiration from folk art.	+
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-	By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas. Galleries were established to showcase these artists. Modern Indian art typically shows the influence of Western styles, but is often inspired by Indian themes and images. Major artists are beginning to gain international recognition, initially among the Indian diaspora, but also among non-Indian audiences.	+
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-	The [[Progressive Artists' Group]], established shortly after India became independent in 1947, was intended to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. The founders were six eminent artists - K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, [[M.F. Husain]], [[S.H. Raza]] and [[Francis Newton Souza|F. N. Souza]], though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, [[Vasudeo S. Gaitonde|V. S. Gaitonde]], [[Ram Kumar]], [[Tyeb Mehta]], and [[Akbar Padamsee]]. Other famous painters like [[Jahar Dasgupta]], Prokash Karmakar, [[John Wilkins (Indian artist)|John Wilkins]], Narayanan Ramachandran, and Bijon Choudhuri enriched the art culture of India. They have become the icons of modern Indian art. Art historians like Prof. Rai [[Anand Krishna]] have also referred to those works of modern artistes that reflect Indian ethos. Geeta Vadhera has had acclaim in translating complex, Indian spiritual themes onto canvas like Sufi thought, the Upanishads and the Bhagwad Geeta.	+
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-	Indian Art got a boost with the economic liberalization of the country since early 1990s. Artists from various fields now started bringing in varied styles of work. Post liberalization Indian art works not only within the confines of academic traditions but also outside it. Artists have introduced new concepts which have hitherto not been seen in Indian art. [[Devajyoti Ray]] has introduced a the new genre of art called [[Pseudorealism]]. Pseudorealist Art is an original art style that has been developed entirely on the Indian soil. Pseudorealism takes into account the Indian concept of abstraction and uses it to transform regular scenes of Indian life into a fantastic images.	+
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-	In post-liberalization India, many artists have established themselves in the international art market like the abstract painter [[Natvar Bhavsar]] and sculptor [[Anish Kapoor]] whose mammoth [[postminimalist]] artworks have acquired attention for their sheer size. Many art houses and galleries have also opened in USA and Europe to showcase Indian artworks.	+
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-	==Western painting==	+
-	:''[[Western painting]], [[Ancient art]]''	+
-	===Egypt, Greece and Rome===	+
-	[[Ancient Egypt]], a civilization with very strong traditions of [[architecture]] and [[sculpture]] (both originally painted in bright colours) also had many mural paintings in temples and buildings, and painted illustrations on [[papyrus]] [[manuscript]]s. Egyptian wall painting and decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic. Egyptian painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat [[silhouette]], in which symmetry is a constant characteristic. [[Art of Ancient Egypt|Egyptian painting]] has close connection with its written language - called [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]. Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of written language. The Egyptians also painted on [[linen]], remnants of which survive today. Ancient Egyptian paintings survived due to the extremely dry climate. The ancient Egyptians created paintings to make the [[afterlife]] of the deceased a pleasant place. The themes included journey through the afterworld or their protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld. Some examples of such paintings are paintings of the gods and goddesses [[Ra]], [[Horus]], [[Anubis]], [[Nut (goddess)|Nut]], [[Osiris]] and [[Isis]]. Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the [[New Kingdom]] and later, the [[Book of the Dead]] was buried with the entombed person. It was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife.	+
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-	To the north of [[Egypt]] was the [[Minoan civilization]] on the island of [[Crete]]. The wall paintings found in the palace of [[Knossos]] are similar to that of the [[Egyptians]] but much more free in style. Around 1100 B.C., tribes from the north of Greece conquered Greece and the Greek art took a new direction.	+
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-	[[Ancient Greece]] had great painters, great sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded as mere manual labour at the time), and great architects. The [[Parthenon]] is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek marble sculpture is often described as the highest form of [[classicism|Classical]] art. Painting on [[pottery of Ancient Greece]] and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]] gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned. [[Black-figure vase painting]] and [[Red-figure vase painting]] gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was. Some famous Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are [[Apelles]], [[Zeuxis]] and [[Parrhasius]], however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5-6 BC and was said to be the first to use [[sfumato]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder]], the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the greatest painter of [[classical antiquity|Antiquity]] for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling.	+
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-	[[Roman art]] was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in [[Campania]], in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of [[trompe-l'œil]], pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape. Almost the only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of [[Fayum mummy portraits|coffin-portraits]] of bust form found in the [[Late Antique]] cemetery of [[Al-Fayum]]. Although these were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in themselves, and give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had. A very small number of [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]] from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period.	+
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-	===Middle Ages===	+
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-	The rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles. [[Byzantine art]], once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on retaining traditional [[iconography]] and style, and has changed relatively little through the thousand years of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the continuing traditions of Greek and Russian [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Othodox]] [[icon]]-painting. Byzantine painting has a particularly hieratic feeling and icons were and still are seen as a reflection of the divine. There were also many wall-paintings in [[fresco]], but fewer of these have survived than Byzantine [[mosaics]]. In general Byzantium art borders on [[abstraction]], in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape. However there are periods, especially in the so-called [[Macedonian art (Byzantine)|Macedonian art]] of around the 10th century, when Byzantine art became more flexible in approach.	+
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-	In post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included painting was the [[Insular art]] of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples (and quite likely the only medium in which painting was used) are miniatures in [[Illuminated manuscript]]s such as the [[Book of Kells]]. These are most famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were also depicted, especially in [[Evangelist portrait]]s. [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] and [[Ottonian art]] also survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall-painting remain, and more are documented. The art of this period combines Insular and "barbarian" influences with a strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and poise.	+
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-	Walls of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic art|Gothic]] churches were decorated with [[fresco]]es as well as sculpture and many of the few remaining [[murals]] have great intensity, and combine the decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures. Far more miniatures in [[Illuminated manuscript]]s survive from the period, showing the same characteristics, which continue into the [[Gothic art|Gothic period]].	+
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-	Panel painting becomes more common during the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]] period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, [[Medieval art]] and [[Gothic painting]] became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and [[perspective (graphical)|perspective]] in Italy with [[Cimabue]] and then his pupil [[Giotto]]. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture. Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more realistic and dramatic approach to his art. His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition. Both artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism.	+
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-	Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful [[stained glass]] become a staple in decoration. One of the most famous examples of this is found in the [[cathedral]] of [[Notre Dame de Paris]]. By the 14th century Western societies were both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even the [[bourgeoisie]]. Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably dressed court women were shown in their landscapes. This style soon became known as International style and [[tempera]] panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance.	+
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-	===Renaissance and Mannerism===	+
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-	The [[Renaissance]] is said by many to be the [[Golden Age (metaphor)|golden age]] of painting. Roughly spanning the 14th through the mid 17th century. In Italy artists like [[Paolo Uccello]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Masaccio]], [[Piero della Francesca]], [[Andrea Mantegna]], [[Filippo Lippi]], [[Giorgione]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]], [[Raphael]], [[Giovanni Bellini]], and [[Titian]] took painting to a higher level through the use of [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]], the study of [[human anatomy]] and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques.	+
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-	Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Lucas Cranach the Elder|Lucas Cranach]], [[Matthias Grünewald]], [[Hieronymous Bosch]], and [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder|Pieter Brueghel]] represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized. [[Genre works|Genre painting]] became a popular idiom amongst such Northern painters as Pieter Brueghel. A new [[verisimilitude]] in depicting reality became possible with the adoption of [[oil painting]], whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to [[Jan Van Eyck]] (an important transitional figure who bridges painting in the [[Middle Ages]] with painting of the early [[Renaissance]]). Unlike the Italians whose work drew heavily from the art of ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and [[illuminated manuscripts]] of the Middle Ages. These tendencies are also see in the [[artists of the Tudor court|art of Tudor England]], which was heavily influenced by [[Protestant]] refugees from the [[Low Countries]].	+
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-	Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science ([[astronomy]], [[geography]]) that occur in this period, the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], and the invention of the [[printing press]]. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere [[artisan]]s but [[Intellectual|thinkers]] as well. With the development of [[easel]] painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.	+
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-	In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[panel painting]]s which could be hung on walls and moved around at will, became increasingly popular for both churches and private houses, rather than [[fresco]] wall-paintings or paintings incorporated into on permanent structures, such as [[altarpiece]]s. The [[High Renaissance]] gave rise to a stylized art known as [[Mannerism]]. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of [[Piero della Francesca]] and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of [[Pontormo]] and the emotional intensity of [[El Greco]]. Some decades later [[Northern Mannerism]] dominated Netherlandish and German art until the arrival of the Baroque.	+
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-	===Baroque and Rococo===	+
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-	Baroque painting is associated with the [[Baroque]] [[cultural movement]], a movement often identified with [[political absolutism|Absolutism]] and the [[Counter Reformation]] or Catholic Revival ; the existence of important Baroque painting in non-absolutist and [[Protestant]] states also, however, underscores its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe.	+
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-	Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance. During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, painting is characterized as [[Baroque]]. Among the greatest painters of the [[Baroque]] are [[Caravaggio]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], [[Frans Hals]], [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], [[Diego Velázquez|Velázquez]], [[Nicolas Poussin|Poussin]], and [[Jan Vermeer]]. Caravaggio is an heir of the [[Humanism|humanist]] painting of the [[High Renaissance]]. His [[realism (visual arts)|realistic]] approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting.	+
-	Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, [[Le Nain]] and [[Georges de La Tour|La Tour]].	+
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-	During the 18th century, [[Rococo]] followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic. [[Rococo]] developed first in the decorative arts and interior design in France. [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]'s succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France exemplified by the works of [[Antoine Watteau]] and [[François Boucher]]. Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetric compositions.	+
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-	The Rococo style spread with French artists and engraved publications. It was readily received in the Catholic parts of [[Germany]], [[Bohemia]], and [[Austria]], where it was merged with the lively German Baroque traditions. German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in the south, while [[Frederician Rococo]] developed in the [[Kingdom of Prussia]].	+
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-	The French masters [[Jean-Antoine Watteau|Watteau]], [[François Boucher|Boucher]] and [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard|Fragonard]] represent the style, as do [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] and [[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]] who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century - the ''Anti-Rococo''. [[Portrait]]ure was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were [[William Hogarth]], in a blunt realist style, and [[Francis Hayman]], [[Angelica Kauffman]] (who was Swiss), [[Thomas Gainsborough]] and [[Joshua Reynolds]] in more flattering styles influenced by [[Antony Van Dyck]]. While in France during the Rococo era [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] (the favorite painter of [[Denis Diderot]]), [[Maurice Quentin de La Tour]], and [[Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]] were highly accomplished [[Portrait painting|Portrait painters]] and [[History painting|History painters]].	+
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-	[[William Hogarth]] helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his ''Analysis of Beauty'' (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in [[Classicism]]). The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like [[Voltaire]] and [[Jacques-François Blondel]] began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/sammlung6/allg/buch.xml?docname=blondel1737].	+
-	By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] artists like [[Jacques Louis David]].	+
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-	===19th century: Neo-classicism, History painting, Romanticism, Impressionism, Post Impressionism, Symbolism===	+
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-	After [[Rococo]] there arose in the late 18th century, in [[architecture]], and then in painting severe [[neo-classicism]], best represented by such artists as [[Jacques Louis David|David]] and his heir [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Ingres]]. Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize [[Romanticism]].	+
-	This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is a [[pantheism|pantheist]] philosophy (see [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]) within this conception that opposes [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of [[Nature]] is in contradiction to [[Ancient Greek]] and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublime]], ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.	+
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-	By the mid-19th century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "art for art's sake" began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. Romantic painters turned [[landscape painting]] into a major genre, considered until then as a minor genre or as a decorative background for figure compositions.	+
-	Some of the major painters of this period are [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[Théodore Géricault]], [[J. M. W. Turner]], [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and [[John Constable]]. [[Francisco de Goya]]'s late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of [[Arnold Böcklin]] evokes mystery and the paintings of [[Aesthetic movement]] artist [[James McNeill Whistler]] evoke both sophistication and [[decadent movement|decadence]]. In the United States the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the [[Hudson River School]]: exponents include [[Thomas Cole]], [[Frederic Edwin Church]], [[Albert Bierstadt]], [[Thomas Moran]], and [[John Frederick Kensett]]. [[Luminism (American art style)|Luminism]] was a movement in American landscape painting related to the [[Hudson River School]].	+
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-	The leading [[Barbizon School]] painter [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot|Camille Corot]] painted in both a romantic and a [[Realism (visual arts)|realistic]] vein; his work prefigures [[Impressionism]], as does the paintings of [[Eugène Boudin]] who was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors. Boudin was also an important influence on the young [[Claude Monet]], whom in 1857 he introduced to [[Plein air]] painting. A major force in the turn towards [[Realism (visual arts)|Realism]] at mid-century was [[Gustave Courbet]]. In the latter third of the century Impressionists like [[Édouard Manet]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Alfred Sisley]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Mary Cassatt]], and [[Edgar Degas]] worked in a more direct approach than had previously been exhibited publicly. They eschewed allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic pallette. Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject. Both Manet and Degas reinterpreted classical figurative canons within contemporary situations; in Manet's case the re-imaginings met with hostile public reception. Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration, with Renoir focusing on the female nude. Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley used the landscape as their primary motif, the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work. While Sisley most closely adhered to the original principals of the Impressionist perception of the landscape, Monet sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions, culminating in his series of monumental works of [[Water Lilies]] painted in [[Giverny]].	+
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-	Pissarro adopted some of the experiments of [[Post-Impressionism]]. Slightly younger Post-Impressionists like [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], and [[Georges Seurat]], along with [[Paul Cézanne]] led art to the edge of [[modernism]]; for Gauguin Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism; Seurat transformed Impressionism's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze-like	+
-	compositions; Van Gogh's turbulent method of paint application, coupled with a sonorous use of color, predicted [[Expressionism]] and [[Fauvism]], and Cézanne, desiring to unite classical composition with a revolutionary abstraction of natural forms, would come to be seen as a precursor of 20th century art.	+
-	The spell of Impressionism was felt throughout the world, including in the United States, where it became integral to the painting of [[American Impressionists]] such as [[Childe Hassam]], [[John Twachtman]], and [[Theodore Robinson]]. It also exerted influence on painters who were not primarily Impressionistic in theory, like the portrait and landscape painter [[John Singer Sargent]]. At the same time in America at the turn of the century there existed a native and nearly insular realism, as richly embodied in the figurative work of [[Thomas Eakins]], the [[Ashcan School]], and the landscapes and seascapes of [[Winslow Homer]], all of whose paintings were deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms. The visionary landscape, a motive largely dependent on the ambiguity of the nocturne, found its advocates in [[Albert Pinkham Ryder]] and [[Ralph Albert Blakelock]].	+
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-	In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist painters]] whose works resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the [[Fauvism|Fauvists]] and the [[Surrealism|Surrealists]]. Among them were [[Gustave Moreau]], [[Odilon Redon]], [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]], [[Henri Fantin-Latour]], [[Arnold Böcklin]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Félicien Rops]], and [[Jan Toorop]], and [[Gustave Klimt]] amongst others including the [[Russian Symbolism|Russian Symbolists]] like [[Mikhail Vrubel]].	+
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-	[[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist painters]] mined [[mythology]] and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul, seeking evocative paintings that brought to mind a static world of silence. The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar [[emblems]] of mainstream [[iconography]] but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, the Symbolist painters influenced the contemporary [[Art Nouveau]] movement and [[Les Nabis]]. In their exploration of dreamlike subjects, symbolist painters are found across centuries and cultures, as they are still today; Bernard Delvaille has described [[René Magritte]]'s surrealism as "Symbolism plus [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]".	+
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-	===20th century Modern and Contemporary===	+
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-	The heritage of painters like [[Van Gogh]], [[Cézanne]], [[Gauguin]], and [[Seurat]] was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century [[Henri Matisse]] and several other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called [[Fauvism]]. [[Pablo Picasso]] made his first [[Cubism|cubist]] paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: [[cube]], [[sphere]] and [[cone (geometry)|cone]].	+
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-	====Pioneers of the 20th century====	+
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-	The heritage of painters like [[Van Gogh]], [[Cézanne]], [[Gauguin]], and [[Seurat]] was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century [[Henri Matisse]] and several other young artists including the pre-cubist [[Georges Braque]], [[André Derain]], [[Raoul Dufy]] and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]] revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called [[Fauvism]] - (as seen in the gallery above). [[Henri Matisse]]'s second version of ''[[The Dance (painting)|The Dance]]'' signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting. It reflects Matisse's incipient fascination with [[primitive art]]: the intense warm colors against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and [[hedonism]]. [[Pablo Picasso]] made his first [[Cubism|cubist]] paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: [[cube]], [[sphere]] and [[cone (geometry)|cone]]. With the painting [[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]] 1907, (see gallery) Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of [[African tribal masks]] and his own new [[Cubist]] inventions. [[Analytic cubism]] (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and [[Georges Braque]], exemplified by ''Violin and Candlestick, Paris,'' (seen above) from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by [[Synthetic cubism]], practised by Braque, Picasso, [[Fernand Léger]], [[Juan Gris]], [[Albert Gleizes]], [[Marcel Duchamp]] and countless other artists into the 1920s. [[Synthetic cubism]] is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, [[collage]] elements, [[papier collé]] and a large variety of merged subject matter.	+
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-	Les Fauves (French for ''The Wild Beasts'') were early 20th century painters, experimenting with freedom of expression through color. The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic [[Louis Vauxcelles]]. [[Fauvism]] was a short-lived and loose grouping of early 20th century artists whose works emphasized [[painterly]] qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values. Fauvists made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by [[Paul Gauguin]] to [[Paul Sérusier]],	+
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-	''"How do you see these trees? They are yellow. So, put in yellow; this shadow, rather blue, paint it with pure [[ultramarine]]; these red leaves? Put in [[vermilion]]."''	+
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-	The leaders of the movement were [[Henri Matisse]] and [[André Derain]] — friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers. Ultimately [[Matisse]] became the ''yang'' to [[Picasso]]'s ''yin'' in the 20th century. Fauvist painters included [[Albert Marquet]], [[Charles Camoin]], [[Maurice de Vlaminck]], [[Raoul Dufy]], [[Othon Friesz]], the Dutch painter [[Kees van Dongen]], and Picasso's partner in Cubism, [[Georges Braque]] amongst others.	+
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-	Fauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions. Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self-establishment in the academic art world. His 1905 portrait of Mme. Matisse ''The Green Line,'' (above), caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited. He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition. In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer [[Ambroise Vollard]], [[André Derain]] went to London and produced a series of paintings like ''Charing Cross Bridge, London'' (above) in the [[Fauvism|Fauvist]] style, paraphrasing the famous series by the [[Impressionist]] painter [[Claude Monet]]. Masters like [[Henri Matisse]] and [[Pierre Bonnard]] continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement throughout the 20th century.	+
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-	By 1907 Fauvism no longer was a shocking new movement, soon it was replaced by [[Cubism]] on	+
-	the critics radar screen as the latest new development in [[Contemporary Art]] of the time.	+
-	In 1907 [[Guillaume Apollinaire|Appolinaire]], commenting about Matisse in an article published in La Falange, said, "We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse's art is eminently reasonable."	+
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-	[[Analytic cubism]] (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and [[Georges Braque]] from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by [[Synthetic cubism]], practised by Braque, Picasso, [[Fernand Léger]], [[Juan Gris]], [[Albert Gleizes]], [[Marcel Duchamp]] and countless other artists into the 1920s. [[Synthetic cubism]] is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, [[collage]] elements, [[papier collé]] and a large variety of merged subject matter.	+
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-	During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of [[cubism]], several movements emerged in Paris. [[Giorgio De Chirico]] moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as [[Alberto Savinio]]). Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade a member of the jury at the Salon d’Automne, where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: ''Enigma of the Oracle'', ''Enigma of an Afternoon'' and ''Self-Portrait''. During 1913 he exhibited his work at the [[Salon des Indépendants]] and Salon d’Automne, his work was noticed by [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to the early beginnings of [[Surrealism]]. (see gallery)	+
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-	====Pioneers of Modern art====	+
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-	In the first two decades of the 20th century and after [[cubism]], several other important movements emerged; [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] ([[Giacomo Balla|Balla]]), [[Abstract art]] ([[Kandinsky]]), [[Der Blaue Reiter]]), [[Bauhaus]], ([[Kandinsky]]) and ([[Paul Klee|Klee]]), [[Orphism (art)|Orphism]], ([[Robert Delaunay]] and [[František Kupka]]), [[Synchromism]] ([[Morgan Russell]]), [[De Stijl]] ([[Piet Mondrian|Mondrian]]), [[Suprematism]] ([[Malevich]]), [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]] ([[Tatlin]]), [[Dadaism]] ([[Duchamp]], [[Picabia]], [[Jean Arp|Arp]]) and [[Surrealism]] ([[Giorgio De Chirico|De Chirico]], [[André Breton]], [[Joan Miró|Miró]], [[René Magritte|Magritte]], [[Salvador Dalí|Dalí]], [[Max Ernst|Ernst]]). Modern painting influenced all the visual arts, from [[Modernist]] [[architecture]] and [[design]], to [[avant-garde]] film, theatre and [[modern dance]] and became an experimental laboratory for the expression of visual experience, from [[photography]] and [[concrete poetry]] to [[advertising|advertising art]] and [[fashion]]. Van Gogh's painting exerted great influence upon 20th century [[Expressionism]], as can be seen in the work of the [[Fauvism|Fauves]], [[Die Brücke]] (a group led by German painter [[Ernst Kirchner]]), and the [[Expressionism]] of [[Edvard Munch]], [[Egon Schiele]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]], [[Chaim Soutine]] and others..	+
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-	[[Wassily Kandinsky]] a Russian [[Painting|painter]], [[printmaker]] and art [[theorist]], one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of [[Modern Art|modern]] [[abstract art]]. As an early [[modernist]], in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary [[occultists]] and [[theosophists]], that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) ''Composition VII'', making connection to the work of the composers of music. Kandinsky included many of his theories about abstract art in his book ''Concerning the Spiritual in Art.'' [[Robert Delaunay]] was a French artist who is associated with [[Orphism (art)|Orphism]], (reminiscent of a link between pure abstraction and cubism). His later works were more abstract, reminiscent of [[Paul Klee]]. His key contributions to abstract painting refer to his bold use of color, and a clear love of experimentation of both depth and tone. At the invitation of [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Delaunay and his wife the artist [[Sonia Delaunay]], joined The Blue Rider ([[Der Blaue Reiter]]), a [[Munich]]-based group of abstract [[artists]], in 1911, and his art took a turn to the abstract. Other Major pioneers of early abstraction include Russian [[Painting|painter]] [[Kasimir Malevich]], who after the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] in 1917, and after pressure from the [[Stalinist]] [[regime]] in 1924 returned to painting imagery and ''Peasants and Workers in the field,'' and [[Swiss (people)|Swiss]] [[Painting|painter]] [[Paul Klee]] whose masterful color experiments made him an important pioneer of [[abstract painting]] at the [[Bauhaus]]. Still other important pioneers of abstract painting include the Swedish artist [[Hilma af Klint]], [[Czechs|Czech]] painter, [[František Kupka]] as well as American artists [[Stanton MacDonald-Wright]] and [[Morgan Russell]] who, in 1912, founded [[Synchromism]], an art movement that closely resembles [[Orphism (art)|Orphism]].	+
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-	''[[Expressionism]]'' and ''[[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]'' are broad rubrics that describes several important and related movements in 20th century painting that dominated much of the [[avant-garde]] art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. Expressionism was painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. [[Fauvism]], [[Die Brücke]], and [[Der Blaue Reiter]] are three of the best known groups of [[Expressionist]] and Symbolist painters. Artists as interesting and diverse as [[Marc Chagall]], whose painting ''[[I and the Village]],'' (above) tells an autobiographical story that examines the relationship between the artist and his origins, with a lexicon of artistic [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Egon Schiele]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], [[Chaim Soutine]], [[James Ensor]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]], [[Max Beckmann]], [[Franz Marc]], [[Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz]], [[Georges Rouault]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]] and some of the Americans abroad like [[Marsden Hartley]], and [[Stuart Davis (painter)|Stuart Davis]], were considered influential expressionist painters. Although [[Alberto Giacometti]] is primarily thought of as an intense [[Surrealist]] [[sculptor]], he made intense expressionist paintings as well.	+
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-	====Pioneers of abstraction====	+
-	[[Piet Mondrian]]'s art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he became interested in the [[Theosophy|theosophical]] movement launched by [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]] in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge.	+
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-	[[De Stijl]] also known as [[neoplasticism]], was a Dutch [[art]]istic movement founded in 1917. The term ''[[De Stijl]]'' is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands.	+
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-	''De Stijl'' is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter, designer, writer, and critic [[Theo van Doesburg]] propagating the group's theories. Next to van Doesburg, the group's principal members were the painters [[Piet Mondrian]], [[Vilmos Huszàr]], and [[Bart van der Leck]], and the architects [[Gerrit Rietveld]], [[Robert van 't Hoff]], and [[J.J.P. Oud]]. The artistic [[philosophy]] that formed a basis for the group's work is known as ''neoplasticism'' — the new plastic art (or ''Nieuwe Beelding'' in Dutch).	+
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-	Proponents of De Stijl sought to express a new [[utopia]]n ideal of spiritual harmony and order. They advocated pure [[abstract art|abstraction]] and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only [[primary colors]] along with black and white. Indeed, according to the [[Tate Gallery]]'s online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay 'Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art'. He writes, "... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour. On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour." The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows "only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line." The [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum|Guggenheim Museum's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: "It [De Stijl] was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines."	+
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-	De Stijl movement was influenced by [[Cubist]] painting as well as by the mysticism and the ideas about "ideal" geometric forms (such as the "perfect straight line") in the [[neoplatonic]] philosophy of [[mathematician]] [[M.H.J. Schoenmaekers]]. The works of De Stijl would influence the [[Bauhaus]] style and the [[International style (architecture)|international style]] of architecture as well as clothing and interior [[design]]. However, it did not follow the general guidelines of an "ism" (Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism), nor did it adhere to the principles of art schools like Bauhaus; it was a collective project, a joint enterprise.	+
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-	====Dada and Surrealism====	+
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-	[[Marcel Duchamp]], came to international prominence in the wake of his notorious success at the New York City [[Armory Show]] in 1913, (soon after he denounced artmaking for [[chess]]). After Duchamp's [[Nude Descending a Staircase]] became the international cause celebre at the 1913 Armory show in New York he created the ''[[The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even]], [[Large Glass]]'' (see above). The ''[[Large Glass]]'' pushed the art of painting to radical new limits being part painting, part collage, part construction. Duchamp became closely associated with the [[Dada]] movement that began in neutral [[Zürich, Switzerland]], during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in [[art]] through [[anti-art]] cultural works. [[Francis Picabia]] (see above), [[Man Ray]], [[Kurt Schwitters]], [[Tristan Tzara]], [[Hans Richter (artist)|Hans Richter]], [[Jean Arp]], [[Sophie Taeuber-Arp]], along with Duchamp and many others are associated with the Dadaist movement. Duchamp and several [[Dadaists]] are also associated with Surrealism, the movement that dominated European painting in the 1920s and 1930s.	+
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-	In 1924 [[André Breton]] published the ''[[Surrealist Manifesto]].'' The [[Surrealist]] movement in painting became synonymous with the [[avant-garde]] and which featured artists whose works varied from the abstract to the super-realist. With works on paper like ''Machine Turn Quickly,'' (above) Francis Picabia continued his involvement in the [[Dada]] movement through 1919 in [[Zürich]] and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] art. [[Yves Tanguy]], [[René Magritte]] and [[Salvador Dalí]] are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination. [[Joan Miró]]'s ''The Tilled Field'' of 1923-1924 verges on abstraction, this early painting of a complex of objects and figures, and arrangements of sexually active characters; was Miro's first [[Surrealist]] [[masterpiece]]. The more abstract [[Joan Miró]], [[Jean Arp]], [[André Masson]], and [[Max Ernst]] were very influential, especially in the United States during the 1940s.	+
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-	Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A [[British Surrealist Group|Surrealist group developed in Britain]] and, according to Breton, their 1936 [[London International Surrealist Exhibition]] was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions. Surrealist groups in Japan, and especially in [[Latin America]], the Caribbean and in Mexico produced innovative and original works.	+
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-	Dalí and [[René Magritte|Magritte]] created some of the most widely recognized images of the movement. The 1928/1929 painting ''This Is Not A Pipe,'' by [[René Magritte|Magritte]] is the subject of a [[Michel Foucault]] 1973 book, ''This is not a Pipe'' (English edition, 1991), that discusses the painting and its [[paradox]]. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.	+
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-	Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, and perception, sometimes evoking empathy from the viewer, sometimes laughter and sometimes outrage and bewilderment.	+
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-	1931 marked a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: in one example (see gallery above) liquid shapes become the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his ''[[The Persistence of Memory]]'', which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting. Evocations of time and its compelling mystery and absurdity.	+
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-	The characteristics of this style - a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological - came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the [[Modernism|modernist]] period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one's individuality."	+
-	[[File:Murdering Airplane.jpg|thumb|[[Max Ernst]], 1920, early [[Surrealism]]]]	+
-	Max Ernst whose 1920 painting ''Murdering Airplane,'' studied philosophy and psychology in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane. His paintings may have been inspired by the [[psychoanalyst]] [[Sigmund Freud]]'s study of the delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber. Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of becoming a woman as a ''[[castration complex]].'' The central image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst's inscription on the back of the painting reads: ''The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance one another.''	+
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-	During the 1920s [[André Masson]]'s work was enormously influential in helping the newly arrived in Paris and young artist [[Joan Miró]] find his roots in the new [[Surrealist]] painting. Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer [[Pierre Matisse]] the importance of Masson as an example to him in his early years in Paris.	+
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-	Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miro, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to define a visual program in the arts. Other prominent surrealist artists include [[Giorgio de Chirico]], [[Méret Oppenheim]], [[Toyen]], [[Grégoire Michonze]], [[Roberto Matta]], [[Kay Sage]], [[Leonora Carrington]], [[Dorothea Tanning]], and [[Leonor Fini]] among others.	+
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-	====Between the Wars====	+
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-	Der Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with [[Die Brücke]] which was founded the previous decade in 1905 and was a group of German [[expressionist]] artists formed in [[Dresden]] in 1905. Founding members of [[Die Brücke]] were [[Fritz Bleyl]], [[Erich Heckel]], [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]] and [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]]. Later members included [[Max Pechstein]], [[Otto Mueller]] and others. The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of [[modern art]] in the 20th century and created the style of [[Expressionism]].	+
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-	[[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], whose psychically expressive painting of the Russian dancer ''Portrait of [[Alexander Sakharoff]],'' 1909 is in the gallery above, [[Marianne von Werefkin]], [[Lyonel Feininger]] and others founded the [[Der Blaue Reiter]] group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting ''Last Judgement'' from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc. Artists [[Gabriele Munter|Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]] were also involved.	+
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-	The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903 (see illustration). It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, ''blue'' is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.	+
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-	In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to go to Europe for recognition. Artists like [[Marsden Hartley]], [[Patrick Henry Bruce]], [[Gerald Murphy]] and [[Stuart Davis (painter)|Stuart Davis]], created reputations abroad. In New York City, [[Albert Pinkham Ryder]] and [[Ralph Albert Blakelock|Ralph Blakelock]] were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer [[Alfred Stieglitz]] exhibited [[Georgia O'Keeffe]], [[Arthur Dove]], [[Alfred Henry Maurer]], [[Charles Demuth]], [[John Marin]] and other artists including European Masters [[Henri Matisse]], [[Auguste Rodin]], [[Henri Rousseau]], [[Paul Cézanne]], and [[Pablo Picasso]], at his gallery ''[[the 291]].''	+
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-	''[[Expressionism]]'' and ''[[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]'' are broad rubrics that describes several important and related movements in 20th century painting that dominated much of the [[avant-garde]] art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. [[Expressionism]] was painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both [[Surrealism]] and [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. [[Fauvism]], [[Die Brücke]], and [[Der Blaue Reiter]] are three of the best known groups of [[Expressionist]] and [[Symbolist]] painters. Artists as interesting and diverse as [[Marc Chagall]], [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Egon Schiele]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], [[Chaim Soutine]], [[James Ensor]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]], [[Max Beckmann]], [[Franz Marc]], [[Otto Dix]], [[Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz]], [[Georges Rouault]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]] and some of the Americans abroad like [[Marsden Hartley]], and [[Stuart Davis (painter)|Stuart Davis]], were considered influential expressionist painters. Although [[Alberto Giacometti]] is primarily thought of as an intense [[Surrealist]] [[sculptor]], he made intense expressionist paintings of figures as well.	+
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-	====Social Consciousness====	+
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-	During the 1920s and the 1930s and the [[Great Depression]], Surrealism, late Cubism, the [[Bauhaus]], [[De Stijl]], Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and [[modernist]] and masterful color painters like [[Henri Matisse]] and [[Pierre Bonnard]] characterized the European art scene. In Germany [[Max Beckmann]], [[Otto Dix]], [[George Grosz]] and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II. While in America [[American Scene painting]] and the [[Social Realism]] and [[Regionalism (art)|Regionalism]] movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like [[Ben Shahn]], [[Thomas Hart Benton (painter)|Thomas Hart Benton]], [[Grant Wood]], [[George Tooker]], [[John Steuart Curry]], [[Reginald Marsh (artist)|Reginald Marsh]], and others became prominent. In [[Latin America]] besides the [[Uruguay]]an painter [[Joaquín Torres García]] and [[Rufino Tamayo]] from Mexico, the [[Mexican muralism|muralist movement]] with [[Diego Rivera]], [[David Siqueiros]], [[José Orozco]], [[Pedro Nel Gómez]] and [[Santiago Martinez Delgado]] and the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] paintings by [[Frida Kahlo]] began a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages. [[Frida Kahlo]]'s Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the [[Magic Realism]] movement in literature. The psychological drama in many of Kahlo's self portraits (above) underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century.	+
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-	''[[American Gothic]]'' is a [[painting]] by [[Grant Wood]] from 1930. Portraying a [[pitchfork]]-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of [[Carpenter Gothic]] style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th century [[American art]]. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting, like [[Gertrude Stein]] and [[Christopher Morley]], they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of [[Sherwood Anderson]]'s ''1919 [[Winesburg, Ohio (novel)|Winesburg, Ohio]]'', [[Sinclair Lewis]]' 1920 ''[[Main Street (novel)|Main Street]]'', and [[Carl Van Vechten]]'s ''The Tattooed Countess'' in literature. However, with the onset of the [[Great Depression]], the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.	+
-	[[File:Palacio de Bellas Artes - Mural El Hombre in cruce de caminos Rivera 3.jpg|thumb|left|[[Diego Rivera]], Recreation of ''[[Man at the Crossroads]]'' (renamed [[Man, Controller of the Universe]]), originally created in 1934, [[Mexican muralism|Mexican muralism movement]]]]	+
-	Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "[[Man at the Crossroads]]", in the lobby of the RCA Building at [[Rockefeller Center]]. When his patron [[Nelson Rockefeller]] discovered that the mural included a portrait of [[Lenin]] and other [[communist]] imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. The film ''[[Cradle Will Rock]]'' includes a dramatization of the controversy. [[Frida Kahlo]] (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Of her 143 paintings 55 are [[Self portrait|self-portraits]], which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological wounds. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. [[Christian]] and [[Jewish]] themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition—which were often bloody and violent—with [[surrealist]] renderings. While her paintings are not overtly Christian - she was, after all, an avowed communist - they certainly contain elements of the macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings.	+
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-	Political activism was an important piece of [[David Siqueiros]]' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the [[Mexican Revolution]], a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political factions fought for recognition and power. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. He briefly gave up painting to focus on organizing miners in Jalisco. He ran a political art workshop in New York City in preparation for the 1936 General Strike for Peace and [[May Day]] [[parade]]. The young [[Jackson Pollock]] attended the workshop and helped build [[float (parade)|float]]s for the parade. Between 1937 and 1938 he fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside the Spanish Republican forces, in opposition to [[Francisco Franco]]'s military coup. He was [[exile]]d twice from Mexico, once in 1932 and again in 1940, following his assassination attempt on [[Leon Trotsky]].	+
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-	====World conflict====	+
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-	During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to [[Surrealism]], including [[Pablo Picasso]]. On 26 April 1937, during the [[Spanish Civil War]], the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque]] town of [[Gernika]] was the scene of the "[[Bombing of Gernika]]" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.	+
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-	In its final form, ''Guernica'' is an immense black and white, 3.5 metre (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metre (23 ft) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph.	+
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-	Picasso painted the mural sized painting called ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' in protest of the bombing. The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then [[Scandinavia]], then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at [[MoMA]]. The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA until its final return to the [[Museum of Modern Art]] in New York City where it was exhibited for nearly thirty years. Finally in accord with [[Pablo Picasso]]'s wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.	+
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-	During the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized by [[Social Realism]] and [[American Scene Painting]] (as seen above) in the work of [[Grant Wood]], [[Edward Hopper]], [[Ben Shahn]], [[Thomas Hart Benton (painter)|Thomas Hart Benton]], and several others. ''[[Nighthawks]]'' (1942) is a painting by [[Edward Hopper]] that portrays people sitting in a downtown [[diner]] late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. It is currently in the collection of the [[Art Institute of Chicago]]. The scene was inspired by a [[diner]] (since demolished) in [[Greenwich Village]], Hopper's home neighborhood in [[Manhattan]]. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.	+
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-	The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi's power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with [[Modernism]] and [[Abstract art|abstraction]] that many left for the Americas. ''[[Degenerate art]]'' was a term adopted by the [[Nazi]] regime in Germany to describe virtually all [[modern art]]. Such [[art]] was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or [[Jewish Bolshevism|Jewish Bolshevist]] in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.	+
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-	''Degenerate Art'' was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in [[Munich]] in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. German artist [[Max Beckmann]] and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting [[Modernist]] painters led by [[Arshile Gorky]], [[Willem de Kooning]], and others were just beginning to come of age.	+
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-	[[Arshile Gorky]]'s portrait of [[Willem de Kooning]] (above) is an example of the evolution of [[Abstract Expressionism]] from the context of figure painting, [[cubism]] and [[surrealism]]. Along with his friends de Kooning and [[John D. Graham]] Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.	+
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-	====Towards Mid Century====	+
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-	The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American [[abstract expressionism]], a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from [[Henri Matisse]], [[Pablo Picasso]], Surrealism, [[Joan Miró]], Cubism, [[Fauvism]], and early Modernism via great teachers in America like [[Hans Hofmann]] and [[John D. Graham]]. American artists benefited from the presence of [[Piet Mondrian]], [[Fernand Léger]], [[Max Ernst]] and the [[André Breton]] group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and [[Peggy Guggenheim]]'s gallery ''[[The Art of This Century]]'', as well as other factors.	+
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-	Post-[[Second World War]] American painting called Abstract expressionism included artists like [[Jackson Pollock]], [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Arshile Gorky]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Clyfford Still]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Adolph Gottlieb]], [[Mark Tobey]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[James Brooks (painter)|James Brooks]], [[Philip Guston]], [[Robert Motherwell]], [[Conrad Marca-Relli]], [[Jack Tworkov]], [[William Baziotes]], [[Richard Pousette-Dart]], [[Ad Reinhardt]], [[Hedda Sterne]], [[Jimmy Ernst]], [[Bradley Walker Tomlin]], and [[Theodoros Stamos]], among others. American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic [[Robert Coates (critic)|Robert Coates]]. It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]], the [[Bauhaus]] and Synthetic Cubism. Abstract expressionism, [[Action painting]], and [[Color Field]] painting are synonymous with the [[New York School]].	+
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-	Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for Abstract expressionism with its emphasis on spontaneous, [[Surrealist automatism|automatic]] or subconscious creation. [[Jackson Pollock]]'s dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of [[André Masson]]. Another important ear<nowiki>ly m</nowiki>anifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist [[Mark Tobey]], especially his "white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all over" look of Pollock's drip paintings.	+
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-	====Abstract Expressionism====	+
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-	Additionally, Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic "[[action painting]]s", with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque ''Women'' series of [[Willem de Kooning]]. As seen above in the gallery ''Woman V'' is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of these paintings, ''Woman I'' collection: [[The Museum of Modern Art]], New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historian [[Meyer Schapiro]] saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; ''Woman II'' collection: [[The Museum of Modern Art]], New York City, ''[[Woman III]]'', [[Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art]], ''Woman IV'', [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]]. During the summer of 1952, spent at [[East Hampton (town), New York|East Hampton]], de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on ''Woman I'' by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time. The ''Woman series'' are decidedly [[Figurative art|figurative paintings]]. Another important artist is [[Franz Kline]], as demonstrated by his painting ''Number 2,'' 1954 (see gallery) as with [[Jackson Pollock]] and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an "[[Action Painting|action painter]] because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas.	+
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-	[[Clyfford Still]], [[Barnett Newman]], (see above), [[Adolph Gottlieb]], and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in [[Mark Rothko]]'s work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what [[Clement Greenberg]] termed the [[Color field]] direction of abstract expressionism. Both [[Hans Hofmann]] (see gallery) and [[Robert Motherwell]] (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of [[action painting]] and [[Color field|Color field painting]].	+
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-	Abstract Expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early twentieth century such as [[Wassily Kandinsky]]. Although it is true that spontaneity or of the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. An exception might be the drip paintings of Pollock.	+
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-	Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American [[Social realism]] had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the [[Great Depression]] but also by the [[Socialist Realism|Social Realists]] of Mexico such as [[David Alfaro Siqueiros]] and [[Diego Rivera]]. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of those painters. Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be showcased during the early 1940s at galleries in New York like ''[[The Art of This Century Gallery]]''. The late 1940s through the mid 1950s ushered in the [[McCarthy era]]. It was after World War II and a time of political conservatism and extreme artistic [[censorship]] in the United States. Some people have conjectured that since the subject matter was often totally abstract, Abstract expressionism became a safe strategy for artists to pursue this style. Abstract art could be seen as apolitical. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders. However those theorists are in the minority. As the first truly original school of painting in America, Abstract expressionism demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the country in the post-war years, as well as its ability (or need) to develop an aesthetic sense that was not constrained by the European standards of beauty.	+
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-	Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the [[New York School]], and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an [[all-over painting|"all-over"]] approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges. The canvas as the ''arena'' became a credo of [[Action painting]], while the ''integrity of the picture plane'' became a credo of the Color Field painters.	+
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-	During the 1950s Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of [[abstract expressionism]], especially the work of [[Mark Rothko]], [[Clyfford Still]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Robert Motherwell]] and [[Adolph Gottlieb]]. It essentially described abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color that expressed the sensual, and visual feelings and properties of large areas of nuanced surface. [[Art critic]] [[Clement Greenberg]] perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The overall expanse and gestalt of the work of the early color field painters speaks of an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface. During the early to mid-1960s Color Field painting was the term used to describe artists like [[Jules Olitski]], [[Kenneth Noland]], and [[Helen Frankenthaler]], whose works were related to second generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like [[Larry Zox]], and [[Frank Stella]], - all moving in a new direction. Artists like [[Clyfford Still]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Jules Olitski]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Larry Zox]], and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. In ''Mountains and Sea,'' from 1952, (see above) a seminal work of [[Colorfield painting]] by [[Helen Frankenthaler]] the artist used the stain technique for the first time.	+
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-	In Europe there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of [[Matisse]]. Also in Europe, [[Tachisme]] (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. [[Serge Poliakoff]], [[Nicolas de Staël]], [[Georges Mathieu]], [[Vieira da Silva]], [[Jean Dubuffet]], [[Yves Klein]] and [[Pierre Soulages]] among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.	+
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-	Eventually abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as [[Neo-Dada]], Color Field painting, [[Post painterly abstraction]], [[Op art]], [[hard-edge painting]], [[Minimal art]], [[shaped canvas]] painting, [[Lyrical Abstraction]], [[Neo-expressionism]] and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements, notably [[Pop art]].	+
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-	====Pop Art====	+
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-	The term "Pop Art" was used by [[Lawrence Alloway]] in England in 1958 to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected Abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of [[David Hockney]] and the works of [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]] and [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] were considered seminal examples in the movement.	+
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-	[[Pop Art]] in America was to a large degree initially inspired by the works of [[Jasper Johns]], [[Larry Rivers]], and [[Robert Rauschenberg]]. Although the paintings of [[Gerald Murphy]], [[Stuart Davis (painter)|Stuart Davis]] and [[Charles Demuth]] during the 1920s and 1930s set the table for [[Pop Art]] in America. In New York City during the mid 1950s [[Robert Rauschenberg]] and [[Jasper Johns]] created works of art that at first seemed to be continuations of [[Abstract expressionist]] painting. Actually their works and the work of [[Larry Rivers]], were radical departures from abstract expressionism especially in the use of banal and literal imagery and the inclusion and the combining of mundane materials into their work. The innovations of Johns' specific use of various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the [[American Flag]]; Rivers paintings of subjects drawn from popular culture such as [[George Washington]] crossing the [[Delaware]], and his inclusions of images from advertisements like the camel from [[Camel cigarettes]], and Rauschenberg's surprising constructions using inclusions of objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, the city streets, and [[taxidermy]] gave rise to a radical new movement in [[American art]]. Eventually by 1963 the movement came to be known worldwide as [[Pop Art]].	+
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-	American [[Pop-Art]] is exemplified by artists: [[Andy Warhol]], [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Wayne Thiebaud]], [[James Rosenquist]], [[Jim Dine]], [[Tom Wesselmann]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] among others. [[Pop art]] merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix. In October 1962 the [[Sidney Janis]] Gallery mounted ''The New Realists'' the first major [[Pop Art]] group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. [[Sidney Janis]] mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the [[New York School]] and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in the fall of 1962 an historically important and ground-breaking ''[[New Painting of Common Objects]]'' exhibition of [[Pop Art]], curated by [[Walter Hopps]] at the [[Pasadena Art Museum]] sent shock waves across the Western United States.	+
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-	While in the downtown scene in New York City's [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]] [[Tenth street galleries|10th Street galleries]] artists were formulating an American version of [[Pop Art]]. [[Claes Oldenburg]] had his storefront, and the [[Green Gallery]] on [[57th Street (Manhattan)|57th Street]] began to show [[Tom Wesselmann]] and [[James Rosenquist]]. Later [[Leo Castelli]] exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and [[Man Ray]], the rebellious Dadaists - with a sense of humor; and Pop Artists like [[Alex Katz]] (who became known for his parody's of portrait photography and suburban life), [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Andy Warhol]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and the others.	+
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-	While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like [[Milton Avery]], [[John D. Graham]], [[Fairfield Porter]], [[Edward Hopper]], [[Balthus]], [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], [[Nicolas de Staël]], [[Andrew Wyeth]], [[Lucian Freud]], [[Frank Auerbach]], [[Philip Pearlstein]], [[David Park]], [[Nathan Oliveira]], [[David Hockney]], [[Malcolm Morley]], [[Richard Estes]], [[Ralph Goings]], [[Audrey Flack]], [[Chuck Close]], [[Susan Rothenberg]], [[Eric Fischl]], [[Vija Celmins]] and [[Richard Diebenkorn]].	+
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-	====Figurative, Landscape, Still-Life, and Realism====	+
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-	During the 1930s through the 1960s abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as [[Abstract Expressionism]], Color Field painting, [[Post painterly abstraction]], [[Op art]], [[hard-edge painting]], [[Minimal art]], [[shaped canvas]] painting, and [[Lyrical Abstraction]]. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction, allowing figurative imagery to continue through various new contexts like the [[Bay Area Figurative Movement]] in the 1950s and new forms of [[expressionism]] from the 1940s through the 1960s. In Italy during this time, [[Giorgio Morandi]] was the foremost still life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements. Throughout the 20th century many painters practiced [[Realism (visual arts)|Realism]] and used expressive imagery; practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like [[still-life]] painter [[Giorgio Morandi]], [[Milton Avery]], [[John D. Graham]], [[Fairfield Porter]], [[Edward Hopper]], [[Andrew Wyeth]], [[Balthus]], [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], [[Leon Kossoff]], [[Frank Auerbach]], [[Lucian Freud]], [[Philip Pearlstein]], [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Arshile Gorky]], [[Grace Hartigan]], [[Robert De Niro, Sr.]], [[Elaine de Kooning]] and others. Along with [[Henri Matisse]], [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Pierre Bonnard]], [[Georges Braque]], and other 20th century masters.	+
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-	''[[Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X]],'' 1953 (see above) is a painting by the Irish born artist [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]] and is an example of Post World War II European [[Expressionism]]. The work shows a distorted version of the [[Portrait of Innocent X]] painted by the Spanish artist [[Diego Velázquez]] in 1650. The work is one of a series of variants of the Velázquez painting which Bacon executed throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, over a total of forty-five works. When asked why he was compelled to revisit the subject so often, Bacon replied that he had nothing against the Popes, that he merely "wanted an excuse to use these colours, and you can't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false [[Fauvism|fauve]] manner." The Pope in this version seethes with anger and aggression, and the dark colors give the image a grotesque and nightmarish appearance.	+
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-	Italian painter [[Giorgio Morandi]] was an important 20th century, early pioneer of Minimalism. Born in [[Bologna, Italy]] in 1890, throughout his career, Morandi concentrated almost exclusively on still lives and landscapes, except for a few self-portraits. With great sensitivity to tone, color, and compositional balance, he would depict the same familiar bottles and vases again and again in paintings notable for their simplicity of execution. Morandi executed 133 etchings, a significant body of work in its own right, and his drawings and watercolors often approach abstraction in their economy of means. Through his simple and repetitive motifs and economical use of color, value and surface, Morandi became a prescient and important forerunner of [[Minimalism]]. He died in Bologna in 1964.	+
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-	After World War II the term [[School of Paris]] often referred to [[Tachisme]], the European equivalent of American Abstract expressionism and those artists are also related to [[COBRA (avant-garde movement)|Cobra]]. Important proponents being [[Jean Dubuffet]], [[Pierre Soulages]], [[Nicholas de Staël]], [[Hans Hartung]], [[Serge Poliakoff]], and [[Georges Mathieu]], among several others. During the early 1950s [[Jean Dubuffet|Dubuffet]] (who was always a figurative artist), and [[Nicolas de Staël|de Staël]], abandoned abstraction, and returned to imagery via figuration and landscape. De Staël 's work was quickly recognised within the post-war art world, and he became one of the most influential artists of the 1950s. His return to representation (seascapes, footballers, jazz musicians, seagulls) during the early 1950s can be seen as an influential precedent for the American [[Bay Area Figurative Movement]], as many of those abstract painters like [[Richard Diebenkorn]], [[David Park]], [[Elmer Bischoff]], [[Wayne Thiebaud]], [[Nathan Oliveira]], [[Joan Brown]] and others made a similar move; returning to imagery during the mid-1950s. Much of de Staël 's late work - in particular his thinned, and diluted oil on canvas abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s predicts Color Field painting and [[Lyrical Abstraction]] of the 1960s and 1970s. [[Nicolas de Staël]] 's bold and intensely vivid color in his last paintings predict the direction of much of contemporary painting that came after him including Pop art of the 1960s.	+
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-	====Art Brut, New Realism, Bay Area Figurative Movement, Neo-Dada, Photorealism====	+
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-	During the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as [[Color Field]] painting, [[Post painterly abstraction]], [[Op art]], [[hard-edge painting]], [[Minimal art]], [[shaped canvas]] painting, [[Lyrical Abstraction]], and the continuation of [[Abstract expressionism]]. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction with [[Outsider art|Art brut]], [[Fluxus]], [[Neo-Dada]], [[New Realism]], allowing imagery to re-emerge through various new contexts like [[Pop art]], the [[Bay Area Figurative Movement]] and later in the 1970s [[Neo-expressionism]]. The [[Bay Area Figurative Movement]] of whom [[David Park]], [[Elmer Bischoff]], [[Nathan Oliveira]] and [[Richard Diebenkorn]] whose painting ''Cityscape 1,'' 1963 is a typical example (see above) were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in [[California]]. Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to practice [[Realism (visual arts)|Realism]] and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like [[Milton Avery]], [[Edward Hopper]], [[Jean Dubuffet]], [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], [[Frank Auerbach]], [[Lucian Freud]], [[Philip Pearlstein]], and others. Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in new and radical ways. [[Yves Klein]], [[Arman]], [[Martial Raysse]], [[Christo]], [[Niki de Saint Phalle]], [[David Hockney]], [[Alex Katz]], [[Malcolm Morley]], [[Ralph Goings]], [[Audrey Flack]], [[Richard Estes]], [[Chuck Close]], [[Susan Rothenberg]], [[Eric Fischl]], and [[Vija Celmins]] were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and the 1980s. [[Fairfield Porter]] (see above) was largely self-taught, and produced representational work in the midst of the [[abstract expressionism|Abstract Expressionist]] movement. His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the [[New York School]] of writers, including [[John Ashbery]], [[Frank O'Hara]], and [[James Schuyler]]. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on [[Great Spruce Head Island, Maine]].	+
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-	Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like [[Ad Reinhardt]], and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: [[Postminimalism]], [[Earth art]], [[Video art]], [[Installation art]], [[arte povera]], [[performance art]], [[body art]], [[fluxus]], [[mail art]], the [[situationists]] and [[conceptual art]] among others.	+
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-	Neo-Dada is also a movement that started 1n the 1950s and 1960s and was related to Abstract expressionism only with imagery. Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of [[Jasper Johns]] and [[Robert Rauschenberg]], whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and [[Installation art]], and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. [[Robert Rauschenberg]], (see ''untitled combine,'' 1963, above), [[Jasper Johns]], [[Larry Rivers]], [[John Chamberlain (sculptor)|John Chamberlain]], [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[George Segal (artist)|George Segal]], [[Jim Dine]], and [[Edward Kienholz]] among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.	+
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-	====New abstraction from the 1950s through the 1980s====	+
-	[[Color Field painting]] clearly pointed toward a new direction in American painting, away from [[abstract expressionism]]. Color Field painting is related to [[Post-painterly abstraction]], [[Suprematism]], [[Abstract Expressionism]], [[Hard-edge painting]] and [[Lyrical Abstraction]].	+
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-	During the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles. [[Geometric abstraction]], Op art, [[hard-edge painting]], Color Field painting and [[Minimalism|minimal]] painting, were some interrelated directions for advanced abstract painting as well as some other new movements. [[Morris Louis]] was an important pioneer in advanced [[Colorfield painting]], his work can serve as a bridge between [[Abstract expressionism]], [[Colorfield painting]], and [[Minimal Art]]. Two influential teachers [[Josef Albers]] and [[Hans Hofmann]] introduced a new generation of American artists to their advanced theories of color and space. [[Josef Albers]] is best remembered for his work as an [[Geometric abstraction]]ist painter and theorist. Most famous of all are the hundreds of paintings and prints that make up the series ''Homage to the Square,'' (see gallery). In this rigorous series, begun in 1949, Albers explored chromatic interactions with flat colored squares arranged concentrically on the canvas. Albers' theories on art and education were formative for the next generation of artists. His own paintings form the foundation of both [[hard-edge painting]] and Op art.	+
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-	[[Josef Albers]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Ilya Bolotowsky]], [[Burgoyne Diller]], [[Victor Vasarely]], [[Bridget Riley]], [[Richard Anuszkiewicz]], [[Frank Stella]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Ellsworth Kelly]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Ronald Davis]], [[Larry Zox]], and [[Al Held]] are artists closely associated with [[Geometric abstraction]], Op art, Color Field painting, and in the case of Hofmann and Newman Abstract expressionism as well.	+
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-	In 1965, an exhibition called ''The Responsive Eye'', curated by William C. Seitz, was held at the [[Museum of Modern Art]], in New York City. The works shown were wide ranging, encompassing the[Minimalism of [[Frank Stella]], the Op art of Larry Poons, the work of [[Alexander Liberman]], alongside the masters of the Op Art movement: [[Victor Vasarely]], [[Richard Anuszkiewicz]], [[Bridget Riley]] and others. The exhibition focused on the perceptual aspects of art, which result both from the illusion of movement and the interaction of color relationships. Op art, also known as optical art, is used to describe some paintings and other works of art which use [[optical illusion]]s. Op art is also closely akin to [[geometric abstraction]] and [[hard-edge painting]]. Although sometimes the term used for it is perceptual abstraction.	+
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-	Op art is a method of painting concerning the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing. Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in only black and white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping.	+
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-	Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like [[Clyfford Still]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Jules Olitski]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Larry Zox]], and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of [[modern art]], artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.	+
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-	[[Frank Stella]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Ellsworth Kelly]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Ronald Davis]], Neil Williams, [[Robert Mangold]], Charles Hinman, [[Richard Tuttle]], David Novros, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the [[shaped canvas]] during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many [[Geometric abstract art]]ists, [[minimalism|minimalists]], and [[Hard-edge]] painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the [[shaped canvas]] is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly [[abstract art|abstract]], formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or [[minimalist]] in character. The Andre Emmerich Gallery, the [[Leo Castelli]] Gallery, the Richard Feigen Gallery, and the [[Park Place Gallery]] were important showcases for [[Color Field painting]], [[shaped canvas]] painting and [[Lyrical Abstraction]] in New York City during the 1960s. There is a connection with [[post-painterly abstraction]], which reacted against [[abstract expressionism]]s' mysticism, hyper-subjectivity, and emphasis on making the act of painting itself dramatically visible - as well as the solemn acceptance of the flat rectangle as an almost ritual prerequisite for serious painting. During the 1960s Color Field painting and [[Minimal art]] were often closely associated with each other. In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse.	+
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-	====Washington Color School, Shaped Canvas, Abstract Illusionism, Lyrical Abstraction====	+
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-	Another related movement of the late 1960s [[Lyrical Abstraction]] is a European term that was borrowed by Larry Aldrich (the founder of the [[Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum]], Ridgefield Connecticut) in 1969 to describe what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time. It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the [[Whitney Museum of American Art]] and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and 1971.	+
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-	[[Lyrical Abstraction]] in the late 1960s is characterized by the paintings of [[Dan Christensen]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Peter Young (artist)|Peter Young]] and others, and along with the [[Fluxus]] movement and [[Postminimalism]] (a term first coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in the pages of [[Artforum]] in 1969) sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and Minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression. [[Postminimalism]] often incorporating industrial materials, raw materials, fabrications, found objects, installation, serial repetition, and often with references to [[Dada]] and [[Surrealism]] is best exemplified in the sculptures of [[Eva Hesse]]. Lyrical Abstraction, [[Conceptual Art]], [[Postminimalism]], [[Earth Art]], [[Video]], [[Performance art]], [[Installation art]], along with the continuation of [[Fluxus]], [[Abstract Expressionism]], [[Color Field]] [[Painting]], [[Hard-edge painting]], [[Minimal Art]], [[Op art]], [[Pop Art]], [[Photorealism]] and [[New Realism]] extended the boundaries of [[Contemporary Art]] in the mid-1960s through the 1970s. Lyrical Abstraction is a type of freewheeling abstract painting that emerged in the mid-1960s when abstract painters returned to various forms of painterly, pictorial, expressionism with a predominate focus on process, gestalt and repetitive compositional strategies in general.	+
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-	[[Lyrical Abstraction]] shares similarities with [[Color Field]] [[Painting]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]] as exemplified by the 1968 [[Ronnie Landfield]] painting ''For William Blake,'' (above) especially in the freewheeling usage of paint - texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Color Field]] [[Painting]]. However the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart from [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Action Painting]] of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen in [[Action Painting]] there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.	+
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-	====Hard-edge painting, Minimalism, Postminimalism, Monochrome painting====	+
-	[[Agnes Martin]], [[Robert Mangold]] (see above), [[Brice Marden]], [[Jo Baer]], [[Robert Ryman]], [[Richard Tuttle]], Neil Williams, David Novros, Paul Mogenson, are examples of artists associated with [[Minimalism]] and (exceptions of Martin, Baer and Marden) the use of the [[shaped canvas]] also during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many [[Geometric abstract art]]ists, minimalists, and [[Hard-edge]] painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the [[shaped canvas]] is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or [[minimalist]] in character. The [[Bykert Gallery]], and the [[Park Place Gallery]] were important showcases for [[Minimalism]] and [[shaped canvas]] painting in New York City during the 1960s.	+
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-	During the 1960s and 1970s artists as powerful and influential as [[Robert Motherwell]], [[Adolph Gottlieb]], [[Phillip Guston]], [[Lee Krasner]], [[Cy Twombly]], [[Robert Rauschenberg]], [[Jasper Johns]], [[Richard Diebenkorn]], [[Josef Albers]], [[Elmer Bischoff]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[Al Held]], [[Sam Francis]], [[Ellsworth Kelly]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Gene Davis (painter)|Gene Davis]], [[Frank Stella]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Joan Mitchell]], [[Friedel Dzubas]], and younger artists like [[Brice Marden]], [[Robert Mangold]], [[Sam Gilliam]], [[Sean Scully]], [[Pat Steir]], [[Elizabeth Murray (artist)|Elizabeth Murray]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Walter Darby Bannard]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Ronald Davis]], [[Dan Christensen]], Joan Snyder, [[Ross Bleckner]], [[Archie Rand]], [[Susan Crile]], and dozens of others produced vital and influential paintings.	+
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-	During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against abstract painting. Some critics viewed the work of artists like [[Ad Reinhardt]], and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: [[Postminimalism]], [[Earth art]], [[Video art]], [[Installation art]], [[arte povera]], [[performance art]], [[body art]], [[fluxus]], [[mail art]], the [[situationists]] and [[conceptual art]] among others.	+
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-	However still other important innovations in abstract painting took place during the 1960s and the 1970s characterized by [[Monochrome painting]] and [[Hard-edge painting]] inspired by [[Ad Reinhardt]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Milton Resnick]], and [[Ellsworth Kelly]]. Artists as diversified as [[Agnes Martin]], [[Al Held]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Frank Stella]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Brice Marden]] and others explored the the power of simplification. The convergence of [[Color Field]] painting, [[Minimal art]], [[Hard-edge painting]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]], and [[Postminimalism]] blurredthe distinction between movements that became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s. The [[Neo-expressionism]] movement is related to earlier developments in [[Abstract expressionism]], [[Neo-Dada]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]] and [[Postminimal]] painting.	+
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-	====Neo Expressionism====	+
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-	In the late 1960s the [[abstract expressionist]] painter [[Philip Guston]] helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to [[Neo-expressionism]] in painting, abandoning the so-called "pure abstraction" of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects. These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery. His painting ''Painting, Smoking, Eating'' 1973, seen above in the gallery is an example of Guston's final and conclusive return to representation.	+
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-	In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and [[UK|Britain]]. These movements were called [[Transavantguardia]], [[Neue Wilde]], [[Figuration Libre]], [[Neo-expressionism]] and the [[School of London]] respectively. These painting were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled [[neo-expressionism]]. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries. This type of art continues in popularity into the 21st century, even after the art crash of the late 1980s. [[Anselm Kiefer]] is a leading figure in European [[Neo-expressionism]] by the 1980s, (see ''To the Unknown Painter'' 1983, in the gallery above) Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on [[Germany|Germany's]] role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involves not only national identity and collective memory, but also [[occult]] [[symbol]]ism, [[theology]] and [[mysticism]]. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life.	+
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-	During the late 1970s in the United States painters who began working with invigorated surfaces and who returned to imagery like [[Susan Rothenberg]] gained in popularity, especially as seen above in paintings like ''Horse 2,'' 1979. During the 1980s American artists like [[Eric Fischl]], (see ''Bad Boy,'' 1981, above), [[David Salle]], [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]], [[Julian Schnabel]], and [[Keith Haring]], and Italian painters like [[Mimmo Paladino]], [[Sandro Chia]], and [[Enzo Cucchi]], among others defined the idea of [[Neo-expressionism]] in America.	+
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-	Neo-expressionism was a style of [[Modernism|modern]] [[painting]] that became popular in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. It developed in Europe as a reaction against the conceptual and [[minimalism|minimalistic]] art of the 1960s and 1970s. Neo-expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (although sometimes in a virtually abstract manner), in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colours and banal colour harmonies. The veteran painters [[Philip Guston]], [[Frank Auerbach]], [[Leon Kossoff]], [[Gerhard Richter]], [[A. R. Penck]] and [[Georg Baselitz]], along with slightly younger artists like [[Anselm Kiefer]], [[Eric Fischl]], [[Susan Rothenberg]], [[Francesco Clemente]], [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]], [[Julian Schnabel]], [[Keith Haring]], and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting.	+
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-	Painting still holds a respected position in [[contemporary art]]. Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal.	+
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-	===Contemporary painting into the 21st Century===	+
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-	At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and Contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of [[Cultural pluralism|pluralism]]. The "crisis" in painting and current art and current [[art criticism]] today is brought about by [[Cultural pluralism|pluralism]]. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an ''anything goes'' attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic [[superhighway]] filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.	+
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-	[[Hard-edge painting]], [[Geometric abstraction]], [[Appropriation (art)|Appropriation]], [[Hyperrealism]], [[Photorealism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Minimalism]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]], [[Pop Art]], [[Op Art]], [[Abstract Expressionism]], [[Color Field painting]], [[Monochrome painting]], [[Neo-expressionism]], [[Collage]], [[Intermedia]] painting, [[Assemblage (art)|Assemblage]] painting, [[Digital painting]], [[Postmodern]] painting, [[Neo-Dada]] painting, [[Shaped canvas]] painting, environmental [[mural painting]], traditional [[Human physical appearance|figure]] painting, [[Landscape painting]], [[Portrait painting]], are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century.	+
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-	==Painting in the Americas==	+
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-	During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas, including North America, [[Central America]], South America and the Islands of the Caribbean, the [[Antilles]], the [[Lesser Antilles]] and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced creative works including [[architecture]], [[pottery]], [[Ceramic art|ceramics]], [[weaving]], [[Wikt:carving|carving]], [[sculpture]], [[painting]] and [[murals]] as well as other religious and utilitarian objects. Each continent of the Americas hosted societies that were unique and individually developed cultures; that produced totems, works of religious symbolism, and decorative and expressive painted works. African influence was especially strong in the art of the Caribbean and South America. The arts of the indigenous people of the Americas had an enormous impact and influence on [[European art]] and vice-versa during and after the [[Age of Exploration]]. Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England were all powerful and influential [[colonial power]]s in the Americas during and after the 15th century. By the 19th century cultural influence began to flow both ways across the Atlantic	+
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-	===Mexico and Central America===	+
-	===South America===	+
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-	===North America===	+
-	====United States====	+
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-	====Canada====	+
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-	===Caribbean===	+
-	==Islamic painting==	+
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-	The depiction of humans, animals or any another figurative subjects is forbidden within Islam to prevent believers from [[idolatry]] so there is no religiously motivated painting (or sculpture) tradition within Muslim culture. Pictorial activity was reduced to [[Arabesque]], mainly [[Abstract art|abstract]], with [[geometrical]] configuration or floral and plant-like patterns. Strongly connected to [[architecture]] and [[calligraphy]], it can be widely seen as used for the painting of [[tile]]s in [[mosques]] or in illuminations around the text of the Koran and other books. In fact abstract art is not an invention of modern art but it is present in [[pre-classical]], [[barbarian]] and non-western cultures many centuries before it and is essentially a decorative or [[applied art]]. Notable [[illustrator]] [[M. C. Escher]] was influenced by this geometrical and [[pattern]] based art. [[Art Nouveau]] ([[Aubrey Beardsley]] and the architect [[Antonio Gaudi]]) re-introduced abstract floral patterns into western art.	+
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-	Note that despite the taboo of figurative visualization, some muslim countries did cultivate a rich tradition in painting, though not in its own right, but as a companion to the written word. Iranian or Persian art, widely known as Persian miniature, concentrates on the illustration of epic or romantic works of literature. Persian illustrators deliberately avoided the use of shading and perspective, though familiar with it in their pre-islamic history, in order to abide by the rule of not creating any life-like illusion of the real world. Their aim was not to depict the world as it is, but to create images of an ideal world of timeless beauty and perfect order.	+
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-	In present days, painting by art students or professional artists in [[arab]] and non-arab muslim countries follow the same tendencies of Western culture art.	+
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-	===Iran===	+
-		+
-	Oriental historian Basil Gray believes "Iran has offered a particularly unique [sic] art to the world which is excellent in its kind".	+
-		+
-	Caves in Iran's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes. Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old.	+
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-	Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting.	+
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-	Paintings of the Qajar period, are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi. Masters such as Kamal-ol-molk, further pushed forward the European influence in Iran. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting" emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like.	+
-		+
-	===Pakistan===	+
-	==Australia==	+
-		+
-	==Africa==	+
-		+
-	African traditional culture and tribes do not seem to have great interest in two-dimensional representations in favour of [[sculpture]] and [[Relief]]. However, decorative painting in African culture is often abstract and geometrical. Another pictorial manifestation is [[body painting]], and [[face painting]] present for example in [[Maasai]] and [[Kĩkũyũ]] culture in their ceremony rituals. Ceremonial [[Cave painting]] in certain villages can be found to be still in use. Note that [[Pablo Picasso]] and other modern artists were influenced by [[African sculpture]] and [[Masks]] in their varied styles.	+
-	Contemporary African artists follow western art movements and their paintings have little difference from occidental art works.	+
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-	====Influence on Western art====	+
-	At the start of the 20th century, artists like [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], [[Henri Matisse|Matisse]], [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]] and [[Amedeo Modigliani|Modigliani]] became aware of, and were inspired by, African art. In a situation where the established [[avant garde]] was straining against the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power of supremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and often primarily, the faculty of [[imagination]], [[emotion]] and [[mystical]] and [[religious experience]]. These artists saw in African Art a [[Formalism (art)|formal]] perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power.	+
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-	==See also==	+
-	*[[20th century Western painting]]	+
-	*[[Art periods]],	+
-	*[[Eastern art history]],	+
-	*[[Hierarchy of genres]]	+
-	*[[History of art]],	+
-	*[[History painting]]	+
-	*[[Outline of painting history]]	+
-	*[[List of painters]]	+
-	*[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects]]	+
-	*[[Painting]]	+
-	*[[Self portrait]]	+
-	*[[Western art history]],	+
-	*[[Western painting]]	+
-	*[[Painting in the Americas before Colonization]]	+
-	*[[Plains hide painting]]	+
-	*[[Native American art]]	+
-		+
-	{{GFDL}}	+

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Current revision

1. redirectPainting