Theories of humor  

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-:''[[theory of laughter]]''+:''[[laughter]], [[A History of Derision]], [[Henri Bergson]]'s ''[[Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic]]'' .
-Modern '''theory of humor''' is a [[multidisciplinary]] effort combining the insights of [[humor]] [[theorists]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Humor_theorists] from various fields including especially philosophers, psychologists, and linguists. Broadly, humor theories have generally been divided into five categories: [[psychoanalytic]], [[superiority]]/[[disparagement]], [[arousal]]/[[relief]], [[incongruity]], and [[reversal]].+
-==Humor theorists==+[[Laughter in literature]]
-Notable thinkers from [[Plato]] to [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]]. [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Gregory Bateson]], and others have investigated or develop theories of humor. Notable modern theorists include [[William Fry]], [[Waleed Salameh]], Rod Martin, and [[John Morreall]].+
-==See also==+
-:''[[laughter]], [[A History of Derision]]''+There are many '''theories of humor''' which attempt to explain what [[humour|humor]] is, what social function it serves, and what would be considered humorous. It would be very difficult to explain humor to a hypothetical person who did not have a sense of humor already. In fact, to such a person humor would appear to be quite strange if not outright irrational behavior. Among the prevailing types of theories that attempt to account for the existence of humor there are: [[psychology|psychological]] theories, the vast majority of which consider humor to be very healthy behavior; there are [[Spiritualism (beliefs)|spiritual theories]] which may, for instance consider humor to be a "gift from God;" there are also theories that consider humor to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a [[mysticism|mystical experience]].
-:"What does laughter mean?” Henri Bergson begins his work on Laughter with this simple and general question. His intention is to analyze the things that make us laugh in order to find out how it is that they make us laugh."--Timo Laine[http://www.timoroso.com/philosophy/writings/sketches/2006-04-09-henri-bergsons-theory-of-laughter]+== Sense of humor, sense of seriousness ==
 +One must have a sense of [[humor]] and a sense of seriousness to distinguish what is supposed to be taken literally or not. An even more keen sense is needed when humor is used to make a serious point. Psychologists have studied how humor is intended to be taken as having seriousness, as when court jesters used humor to convey serious information. Conversely, when humor is not intended to be taken seriously, [[Taste (sociology)|bad taste]] in humor may cross a line after which it is taken seriously, though not intended.
-See [[Henri Bergson]]'s ''[[Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic]]'' .+==Superiority theory==
 +The '''superiority theory''' of humor traces back to [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], and Thomas Hobbes' ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]''. Clint explains that a person laughs about misfortunes of others (so called ''schadenfreude''), because these misfortunes assert the person's superiority on the background of shortcomings of others.
 + 
 +For [[Aristotle]], we laugh at inferior or ugly individuals, because we feel a joy at being superior to them. [[Socrates]] was reported by [[Plato]] as saying that the [[Ridiculousness|ridiculous]] was characterized by a display of self-ignorance.
 + 
 +==Incongruity==
 +:''[[ridiculousness]]''
 +The '''incongruity theory''' states that humor is perceived at the moment of realization of incongruity between a concept involved in a certain situation and the real objects thought to be in some relation to the concept.
 + 
 +Since the main point of the theory is not the incongruity ''per se'', but its realization and resolution (i.e., putting the objects in question into the real relation), it is often called the '''incongruity-resolution theory'''.
 + 
 +[[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]] expressed in ''Thoughts on Laughter'' (1725) what became a key concept in the evolving theory of the comic: laughter as a response to the perception of incongruity. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] wrote that the perceived incongruity is between a concept and the real object it represents. [[Hegel]] shared almost exactly the same view, but saw the concept as an "appearance" and believed that laughter then totally negates that appearance. According to [[Spenser]], laughter is an "economical phenomenon" whose function is to release "psychic energy" that had been wrongly mobilized by incorrect or false expectations. The latter point of view was
 +supported also by [[Sigmund Freud]].
 + 
 +The first formulation of the incongruity theory is attributed to the Scottish poet Beattie.
 + 
 + 
 +==General Theory of Verbal Humor==
 +The '''General Theory of Verbal Humor''' ('''GTVH''') proposed by [[Victor Raskin]] and [[Salvatore Attardo]] in 1991 (an extension of the '''semantic script theory of humour''', '''SSTH''' which Raskin proposed in 1985) identifies a semantic model capable of expressing incongruities between semantic scripts in verbal humor; this has been seen as an important recent development in the theory of laughter.
 + 
 +==Computer Theory of Humor==
 + 
 +The '''Computer Model of a Sense of Humor''' was suggested by Suslov in 1992 Investigation of the general scheme of the information processing show a possibility of a specific malfunction, conditioned by the necessity of a quick deletion from consciousness of a false version. This specific malfunction can be identified with a humorous effect on the psychological grounds: it exactly corresponds to '''incongruity-resolution theory'''. However, an essentially new ingredient, a role of timing, is added to a well known role of ambiguity. In biological systems, a sense of humor inevitably develops in the course of evolution, because its biological function consists in quickening the transmission of the processed information into consciousness and in a more effective use of brain resources. A realization of this algorithm in neural networks <ref>I.M.Suslov, Computer Model of "a Sense of Humour". II. Realization in Neural Networks. Biofizika SSSR 37, 325 (1992) [Biophysics {\bf 37}, 249 (1992)] http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.2061.</ref> justifies naturally Spenser’s hypothesis on the mechanism of laughter: deletion of a false version corresponds to zeroing of some part of the neural network and excessive energy of neurons is thrown out to the motor cortex, arousing muscular contractions.
 + 
 +The theory treats on the equal footing the humorous effect created by the linguistic means (verbal humor), as well as created visually (caricature, clown performance) or by tickling. The theory explains naturally different susceptibility of people to humor, absence of humorous effect from a trite joke, a role of intonation in telling jokes, nervous laughter, etc.
 +According to this theory, the humor has a pure biological origin, while its social functions arose later. This conclusion corresponds to the known fact that already monkeys (as pointed by [[Charles Darwin]]) and even rats (as found recently) possess the sense of humor.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
 + 
 +A practical realization of this algorithm needs extensive databases, whose creation in the automatic regime was suggested recently.<ref>I.M.Suslov, How to Realize "a Sense of Humour" in Computers? http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.3197.</ref>
 + 
 +==Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor==
 + 
 +The '''Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor''' ('''OETC''') proposed by P. Marteinson (2006) asserts that laughter is a reaction to a cognitive impasse, a momentary epistemological difficulty, in which the subject perceives that Social Being itself suddenly appears no longer to be real in any factual or normative sense. When this occurs material reality, which is always factually true, is the only percept remaining in the mind at such a moment of comic perception. This theory posits, as in Bergson, that human beings accept as ''real'' both normative immaterial percepts, such as social identity, and noological factual percepts, but also that the individual subject normally blends the two together in perception in order to live by the assumption they are equally real. The comic results from the perception that they are not. This same result arises in a number of paradigmatic cases: factual reality can be seen to conflict with and disprove social reality, which Marteinson calls Deculturation; alternatively, social reality can appear to contradict other elements of social reality, which he calls "Relativisation". Laughter, according to Marteinson, serves to reset and re-boot the faculty of social perception, which has been rendered non-functional by the comic situation: it anesthetizes the mind with its euphoria, and permits the forgetting of the comic stimulus, as well as the well-known function of communicating the humorous reaction to other members of society.
 + 
 +==Sexual selection==
 +:''[[sexual selection in human evolution]]''
 +Evolutionary psychologist, [[Geoffrey Miller (evolutionary psychologist)|Geoffrey Miller]] contends that, from an evolutionary perspective, humor would have had no survival value to early humans living in the savannas of Africa. He proposes, that cultural aspects like humor, evolved by sexual selection. He argues that humor emerged as an indicator of other traits that were of survival value, such as human intelligence.
 + 
 +== Misattribution Theory ==
 +[[Misattribution]] is one theory of humor that describes an audience's inability to identify exactly why they find a [[joke]] to be funny. The formal theory is attributed to Zillmann & Bryant (1980) in their article, “Misattribution Theory of Tendentious Humor,” published in ''[[Journal of Experimental Social Psychology]]''. They derived the critical concepts of the theory from [[Sigmund Freud]]’s ''[[Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious]]'', originally published in 1905. Freud declared people incapable of knowing exactly what it is they find amusing due to the complex nature of their conscious and subconscious minds. Jokes are crafted by comedians who have experience with causing laughter but who may themselves be blind to the actual cause of humor.
 + 
 +==Benign Violation Theory==
 +The benign violation theory (BVT) is developed by researchers [[Peter McGraw|A. Peter McGraw]] and Caleb Warren. The BVT integrates seemingly disparate theories of humor to predict that humor occurs when three conditions are satisfied: 1) something threatens one’s sense of how the world “ought to be,” 2) the threatening situation seems benign, and 3) a person sees both interpretations at the same time.
 + 
 +From an evolutionary perspective, humorous violations likely originated as apparent physical threats, like those present in play fighting and tickling. As humans evolved, the situations that elicit humor likely expanded from physical threats to other violations, including violations of personal dignity (e.g., slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (e.g., puns, malapropisms), social norms (e.g., strange behaviors, risqué jokes), and even moral norms (e.g., disrespectful behaviors). The BVT suggests that anything that threatens one’s sense of how the world “ought to be” will be humorous, so long as the threatening situation also seems benign.
 + 
 +There is also more than one way a violation can seem benign. McGraw and Warren tested three contexts in the domain of moral violations. A violation can seem benign if one norm suggests something is wrong but another salient norm suggests it is acceptable. A violation can also seem benign when one is psychologically distant from the violation or is only weakly committed to the violated norm.
 + 
 +For example, McGraw and Warren find that most consumers were disgusted when they read about a church raffling off a Hummer SUV to recruit new members. However, many consumers were simultaneously amused. Consistent with the BVT, people who attended church were less likely to be amused than people who did not. Churchgoers are more committed to the belief that churches are sacred and, consequently, were less likely to consider the church’s behavior benign.
 + 
 +==Humor as defense mechanism==
 + 
 +According to [[George Eman Vaillant]]'s (1977) categorization, humor is level IV [[defense mechanism]]: overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant to focus on or too terrible to talk about) that gives pleasure to others. Humor, which explores the absurdity inherent in any event, enables someone to "call a spade a spade", while "wit" is a form of displacement (level 3). Wit refers to the serious or distressing in a humorous way, rather than disarming it; the thoughts remain distressing, but they are "skirted round" by witticism.
 + 
 +==Humor as relief of fear==
 +At least one researcher has argued that humor be viewed as that which provokes a relief of one's fears.
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laughter, A History of Derision, Henri Bergson's Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic .

Laughter in literature

There are many theories of humor which attempt to explain what humor is, what social function it serves, and what would be considered humorous. It would be very difficult to explain humor to a hypothetical person who did not have a sense of humor already. In fact, to such a person humor would appear to be quite strange if not outright irrational behavior. Among the prevailing types of theories that attempt to account for the existence of humor there are: psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humor to be very healthy behavior; there are spiritual theories which may, for instance consider humor to be a "gift from God;" there are also theories that consider humor to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a mystical experience.

Contents

Sense of humor, sense of seriousness

One must have a sense of humor and a sense of seriousness to distinguish what is supposed to be taken literally or not. An even more keen sense is needed when humor is used to make a serious point. Psychologists have studied how humor is intended to be taken as having seriousness, as when court jesters used humor to convey serious information. Conversely, when humor is not intended to be taken seriously, bad taste in humor may cross a line after which it is taken seriously, though not intended.

Superiority theory

The superiority theory of humor traces back to Plato and Aristotle, and Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan. Clint explains that a person laughs about misfortunes of others (so called schadenfreude), because these misfortunes assert the person's superiority on the background of shortcomings of others.

For Aristotle, we laugh at inferior or ugly individuals, because we feel a joy at being superior to them. Socrates was reported by Plato as saying that the ridiculous was characterized by a display of self-ignorance.

Incongruity

ridiculousness

The incongruity theory states that humor is perceived at the moment of realization of incongruity between a concept involved in a certain situation and the real objects thought to be in some relation to the concept.

Since the main point of the theory is not the incongruity per se, but its realization and resolution (i.e., putting the objects in question into the real relation), it is often called the incongruity-resolution theory.

Francis Hutcheson expressed in Thoughts on Laughter (1725) what became a key concept in the evolving theory of the comic: laughter as a response to the perception of incongruity. Arthur Schopenhauer wrote that the perceived incongruity is between a concept and the real object it represents. Hegel shared almost exactly the same view, but saw the concept as an "appearance" and believed that laughter then totally negates that appearance. According to Spenser, laughter is an "economical phenomenon" whose function is to release "psychic energy" that had been wrongly mobilized by incorrect or false expectations. The latter point of view was supported also by Sigmund Freud.

The first formulation of the incongruity theory is attributed to the Scottish poet Beattie.


General Theory of Verbal Humor

The General Theory of Verbal Humor (GTVH) proposed by Victor Raskin and Salvatore Attardo in 1991 (an extension of the semantic script theory of humour, SSTH which Raskin proposed in 1985) identifies a semantic model capable of expressing incongruities between semantic scripts in verbal humor; this has been seen as an important recent development in the theory of laughter.

Computer Theory of Humor

The Computer Model of a Sense of Humor was suggested by Suslov in 1992 Investigation of the general scheme of the information processing show a possibility of a specific malfunction, conditioned by the necessity of a quick deletion from consciousness of a false version. This specific malfunction can be identified with a humorous effect on the psychological grounds: it exactly corresponds to incongruity-resolution theory. However, an essentially new ingredient, a role of timing, is added to a well known role of ambiguity. In biological systems, a sense of humor inevitably develops in the course of evolution, because its biological function consists in quickening the transmission of the processed information into consciousness and in a more effective use of brain resources. A realization of this algorithm in neural networks <ref>I.M.Suslov, Computer Model of "a Sense of Humour". II. Realization in Neural Networks. Biofizika SSSR 37, 325 (1992) [Biophysics {\bf 37}, 249 (1992)] http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.2061.</ref> justifies naturally Spenser’s hypothesis on the mechanism of laughter: deletion of a false version corresponds to zeroing of some part of the neural network and excessive energy of neurons is thrown out to the motor cortex, arousing muscular contractions.

The theory treats on the equal footing the humorous effect created by the linguistic means (verbal humor), as well as created visually (caricature, clown performance) or by tickling. The theory explains naturally different susceptibility of people to humor, absence of humorous effect from a trite joke, a role of intonation in telling jokes, nervous laughter, etc. According to this theory, the humor has a pure biological origin, while its social functions arose later. This conclusion corresponds to the known fact that already monkeys (as pointed by Charles Darwin) and even rats (as found recently) possess the sense of humor.Template:Citation needed

A practical realization of this algorithm needs extensive databases, whose creation in the automatic regime was suggested recently.<ref>I.M.Suslov, How to Realize "a Sense of Humour" in Computers? http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.3197.</ref>

Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor

The Ontic-Epistemic Theory of Humor (OETC) proposed by P. Marteinson (2006) asserts that laughter is a reaction to a cognitive impasse, a momentary epistemological difficulty, in which the subject perceives that Social Being itself suddenly appears no longer to be real in any factual or normative sense. When this occurs material reality, which is always factually true, is the only percept remaining in the mind at such a moment of comic perception. This theory posits, as in Bergson, that human beings accept as real both normative immaterial percepts, such as social identity, and noological factual percepts, but also that the individual subject normally blends the two together in perception in order to live by the assumption they are equally real. The comic results from the perception that they are not. This same result arises in a number of paradigmatic cases: factual reality can be seen to conflict with and disprove social reality, which Marteinson calls Deculturation; alternatively, social reality can appear to contradict other elements of social reality, which he calls "Relativisation". Laughter, according to Marteinson, serves to reset and re-boot the faculty of social perception, which has been rendered non-functional by the comic situation: it anesthetizes the mind with its euphoria, and permits the forgetting of the comic stimulus, as well as the well-known function of communicating the humorous reaction to other members of society.

Sexual selection

sexual selection in human evolution

Evolutionary psychologist, Geoffrey Miller contends that, from an evolutionary perspective, humor would have had no survival value to early humans living in the savannas of Africa. He proposes, that cultural aspects like humor, evolved by sexual selection. He argues that humor emerged as an indicator of other traits that were of survival value, such as human intelligence.

Misattribution Theory

Misattribution is one theory of humor that describes an audience's inability to identify exactly why they find a joke to be funny. The formal theory is attributed to Zillmann & Bryant (1980) in their article, “Misattribution Theory of Tendentious Humor,” published in Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. They derived the critical concepts of the theory from Sigmund Freud’s Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious, originally published in 1905. Freud declared people incapable of knowing exactly what it is they find amusing due to the complex nature of their conscious and subconscious minds. Jokes are crafted by comedians who have experience with causing laughter but who may themselves be blind to the actual cause of humor.

Benign Violation Theory

The benign violation theory (BVT) is developed by researchers A. Peter McGraw and Caleb Warren. The BVT integrates seemingly disparate theories of humor to predict that humor occurs when three conditions are satisfied: 1) something threatens one’s sense of how the world “ought to be,” 2) the threatening situation seems benign, and 3) a person sees both interpretations at the same time.

From an evolutionary perspective, humorous violations likely originated as apparent physical threats, like those present in play fighting and tickling. As humans evolved, the situations that elicit humor likely expanded from physical threats to other violations, including violations of personal dignity (e.g., slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (e.g., puns, malapropisms), social norms (e.g., strange behaviors, risqué jokes), and even moral norms (e.g., disrespectful behaviors). The BVT suggests that anything that threatens one’s sense of how the world “ought to be” will be humorous, so long as the threatening situation also seems benign.

There is also more than one way a violation can seem benign. McGraw and Warren tested three contexts in the domain of moral violations. A violation can seem benign if one norm suggests something is wrong but another salient norm suggests it is acceptable. A violation can also seem benign when one is psychologically distant from the violation or is only weakly committed to the violated norm.

For example, McGraw and Warren find that most consumers were disgusted when they read about a church raffling off a Hummer SUV to recruit new members. However, many consumers were simultaneously amused. Consistent with the BVT, people who attended church were less likely to be amused than people who did not. Churchgoers are more committed to the belief that churches are sacred and, consequently, were less likely to consider the church’s behavior benign.

Humor as defense mechanism

According to George Eman Vaillant's (1977) categorization, humor is level IV defense mechanism: overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant to focus on or too terrible to talk about) that gives pleasure to others. Humor, which explores the absurdity inherent in any event, enables someone to "call a spade a spade", while "wit" is a form of displacement (level 3). Wit refers to the serious or distressing in a humorous way, rather than disarming it; the thoughts remain distressing, but they are "skirted round" by witticism.

Humor as relief of fear

At least one researcher has argued that humor be viewed as that which provokes a relief of one's fears.



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