Syntactic ambiguity

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

(Difference between revisions)

Jump to: navigation, search

Current revision

Related e

Wikipedia
Wiktionary
Shop

Featured:

Rhombicuboctahedron by Leonardo da Vinci

Syntactic ambiguity, also called amphiboly or amphibology, is a situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous sentence structure.

Syntactic ambiguity arises not from the range of meanings of single words, but from the relationship between the words and clauses of a sentence, and the sentence structure underlying the word order therein. In other words, a sentence is syntactically ambiguous when a reader or listener can reasonably interpret one sentence as having more than one possible structure.

[edit]

Syntactic ambiguity

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Current revision

See also

Views

Personal tools

Search

Metas

Navigation

 {{Template}}
-'''Pragmatics''' is a subfield of [[linguistics]] and [[semiotics]] that studies the ways in which [[context (language use)|context]] contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses [[speech act]] theory, conversational [[implicature]], [[Conversation analysis|talk in interaction]] and other approaches to language behavior in [[Philosophy of language|philosophy]], [[Sociology of language|sociology]], linguistics and [[anthropology]]. Unlike [[semantics]], which examines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., [[grammar]], [[lexicon]], etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred [[intention|intent]] of the speaker, and other factors. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent [[ambiguity]], since meaning relies on the manner, place, time, etc. of an utterance.
+'''Syntactic ambiguity''', also called '''amphiboly''' or '''amphibology''', is a situation where a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous [[syntax|sentence structure]].
-The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called ''pragmatic competence''.
+Syntactic ambiguity arises not from the range of [[polysemy|meanings of single words]], but from the relationship between the words and clauses of a sentence, and the sentence structure underlying the word order therein. In other words, a sentence is syntactically ambiguous when a reader or listener can reasonably interpret one sentence as having more than one possible structure.
-==Ambiguity==
-The sentence "You have a green light" is ambiguous. Without knowing the context, the identity of the speaker or the speaker's intent, it is difficult to infer the meaning with certainty. For example, it could mean:
-* the space that belongs to you has green ambient lighting;
-* you are driving through a green traffic signal;
-* you no longer have to wait to continue driving;
-* you are permitted to proceed in a non-driving context;
-* your body is cast in a greenish glow; or
-* you possess a light bulb that is tinted green.
-Similarly, the sentence "Sherlock saw the man with binoculars" could mean that Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars, or it could mean that Sherlock observed a man who was holding binoculars (''[[syntactic ambiguity]]''). The meaning of the sentence depends on an understanding of the context and the speaker's intent. As defined in linguistics, a sentence is an abstract entity — a string of words divorced from non-linguistic context — as opposed to an [[utterance]], which is a concrete example of a [[speech act]] in a specific context. The more closely conscious subjects stick to common words, idioms, phrasings, and topics, the more easily others can surmise their meaning; the further they stray from common expressions and topics, the wider the variations in interpretations. This suggests that sentences do not have intrinsic meaning, that there is no meaning associated with a sentence or word, and that either can only represent an idea symbolically.  ''The cat sat on the mat'' is a sentence in English. If someone were to say to someone else, "The cat sat on the mat," the act is itself an utterance. This implies that a sentence, term, expression or word cannot symbolically represent a single true meaning; such meaning is underspecified (which cat sat on which mat?) and potentially ambiguous. By contrast, the meaning of an utterance can be inferred through knowledge of both its linguistic and non-linguistic contexts (which may or may not be sufficient to resolve ambiguity). In mathematics, with [[Berry's paradox]], there arises a similar systematic ambiguity with the word "definable".
-==Etymology==
-The word ''pragmatics'' derives via [[Latin]] ''pragmaticus'' from the [[Greek language|Greek]] πραγματικός (''pragmatikos''), meaning amongst others "fit for action", which comes from πρᾶγμα (''pragma''), "deed, act", and that from πράσσω (''prassō''), "to pass over, to practise, to achieve".
-==Origins of the field==
-Pragmatics was a reaction to [[Structuralism|structuralist]] linguistics as outlined by [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]. In many cases, it expanded upon his idea that language has an analyzable structure, composed of parts that can be defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged only in [[Course in General Linguistics#Synchronic and diachronic axes|synchronic]] study, as opposed to examining the historical development of language. However, it rejected the notion that all meaning comes from [[Sign (semiotics)|signs]] existing purely in the abstract space of ''langue''. Meanwhile, [[historical pragmatics]] has also come into being. This field only gained linguists' attention in the 70s. This is when two different schools emerged; notably the Anglo-American pragmatic thought and the European continental pragmatic thought (also called the perspective view).
-==Areas of interest==
-* The study of the speaker's meaning,  not focusing on the phonetic or grammatical form of an utterance, but instead on what the speaker's intentions and beliefs are.
-* The study of the meaning in context, and the influence that a given context can have on the message. It requires knowledge of the speaker's identities, and the place and time of the utterance.
-* The study of [[implicature]]s, i.e. the things that are communicated even though they are not explicitly expressed.
-* The study of relative distance, both social and physical, between speakers in order to understand what determines the choice of what is said and what is not said.
-* The study of what is not meant, as opposed to the intended meaning, i.e. that which is unsaid and unintended, or unintentional.
-* [[Information structure]], the study of how utterances are marked in order to efficiently manage the common ground of referred entities between speaker and hearer
-* [[Formal Pragmatics]], the study of those aspects of meaning and use for which context of use is an important factor, by using the methods and goals of formal semantics.
-==Referential uses of language==
-When we speak of the referential uses of language we are talking about how we use [[Sign (semiotics)|signs]] to refer to certain items. Below is an explanation of, first, what a sign is, second, how meanings are accomplished through its usage.
-A sign is the link or relationship between a [[Sign (semiotics)|signified and the signifier]] as defined by Saussure and Huguenin. The signified is some entity or concept in the world. The signifier represents the signified. An example would be:
-:''Signified: the concept cat
-:''Signifier: the word "cat"
-The relationship between the two gives the sign meaning. This relationship can be further explained by considering what we mean by "meaning." In pragmatics, there are two different types of meaning to consider: '''semantico-referential meaning''' and '''indexical meaning.''' Semantico-referential meaning refers to the aspect of meaning, which describes events in the world that are independent of the circumstance they are uttered in. An example would be propositions such as:
-:''"Santa Claus eats cookies."''
-In this case, the proposition is describing that Santa Claus eats cookies. The meaning of this proposition does not rely on whether or not Santa Claus is eating cookies at the time of its utterance. Santa Claus could be eating cookies at any time and the meaning of the proposition would remain the same. The meaning is simply describing something that is the case in the world. In contrast, the proposition, "Santa Claus is eating a cookie right now," describes events that are happening at the time the proposition is uttered.
-Semantico-referential meaning is also present in meta-semantical statements such as:
-:''Tiger: carnivorous, a mammal''
-If someone were to say that a tiger is a carnivorous animal in one context and a mammal in another, the definition of tiger would still be the same. The meaning of the sign tiger is describing some animal in the world, which does not change in either circumstance.
-[[Indexical]] meaning, on the other hand, is dependent on the context of the utterance and has rules of use. By rules of use, it is meant that indexicals can tell you when they are used, but not what they actually mean.
-:''Example'': "I"
-Whom "I" refers to depends on the context and the person uttering it.
-As mentioned, these meanings are brought about through the relationship between the signified and the signifier. One way to define the relationship is by placing signs in two categories: '''referential indexical signs,''' also called "shifters," and '''pure indexical signs.'''
-Referential indexical signs are signs where the meaning shifts depending on the context hence the nickname "shifters." 'I' would be considered a referential indexical sign. The referential aspect of its meaning would be '1st person singular' while the indexical aspect would be the person who is speaking (refer above for definitions of semantico-referential and indexical meaning). Another example would be:
-:''"This"''
-:''Referential: singular count''
-:''Indexical: Close by''
-A pure indexical sign does not contribute to the meaning of the propositions at all. It is an example of a "non-referential use of language."
-A second way to define the signified and signifier relationship is [[Charles Sanders Peirce|C.S. Peirce]]'s '''Peircean Trichotomy'''. The components of the trichotomy are the following:
-:1. '''Icon''': the signified resembles the signifier (signified: a dog's barking noise, signifier: bow-wow)
-:2. '''Index''': the signified and signifier are linked by proximity or the signifier has meaning only because it is pointing to the signified
-:3. '''Symbol''': the signified and signifier are arbitrarily linked (signified: a cat, signifier: the word cat)
-These relationships allow us to use signs to convey what we want to say. If two people were in a room and one of them wanted to refer to a characteristic of a chair in the room he would say "this chair has four legs" instead of "a chair has four legs." The former relies on context (indexical and referential meaning) by referring to a chair specifically in the room at that moment while the latter is independent of the context (semantico-referential meaning), meaning the concept chair.
-==Non-referential uses of language==
-===Silverstein's "pure" indexes===
-[[Michael Silverstein]] has argued that "nonreferential" or "pure" indices do not contribute to an utterance's referential meaning but instead "signal some particular value of one or more contextual variables." Although nonreferential indexes are devoid of semantico-referential meaning, they do encode "pragmatic" meaning.
-The sorts of contexts that such indexes can mark are varied. Examples include:
-* '''Sex indexes''' are affixes or inflections that index the sex of the speaker, e.g. the verb forms of female [[Koasati language|Koasati]] speakers take the suffix "-s".
-*  '''Deference indexes''' are words that signal social differences (usually related to status or age) between the speaker and the addressee. The most common example of a deference index is the V form in a language with a [[T-V distinction]], the widespread phenomenon in which there are multiple second-person pronouns that correspond to the addressee's relative status or familiarity to the speaker. [[Honorific]]s are another common form of deference index and demonstrate the speaker's respect or esteem for the addressee via special forms of address and/or self-humbling first-person pronouns.
-* An '''Affinal taboo index''' is an example of [[avoidance speech]] that produces and reinforces sociological distance, as seen in the Aboriginal [[Dyirbal language]] of Australia. In this language and some others, there is a social taboo against the use of the everyday lexicon in the presence of certain relatives (mother-in-law, child-in-law, paternal aunt's child, and maternal uncle's child). If any of those relatives are present, a Dyirbal speaker has to switch to a completely separate lexicon reserved for that purpose.
-In all of these cases, the semantico-referential meaning of the utterances is unchanged from that of the other possible (but often impermissible) forms, but the pragmatic meaning is vastly different.
-===The performative===
-[[J.L. Austin]] introduced the concept of the [[Performative utterance|performative]], contrasted in his writing with "constative" (i.e. descriptive) utterances. According to Austin's original formulation, a performative is a type of utterance characterized by two distinctive features:
-* It is not [[logical value|truth-evaluable]] (i.e. it is neither true nor false)
-* Its uttering ''performs'' an action rather than simply describing one
-Examples:
-* "I hereby pronounce you man and wife."
-* "I accept your apology."
-* "This meeting is now adjourned."
-To be performative, an utterance must conform to various conditions involving what Austin calls [[felicity conditions|felicity]]. These deal with things like appropriate context and the speaker's authority. For instance, when a couple has been arguing and the husband says to his wife that he accepts her apology even though she has offered nothing approaching an apology, his assertion is infelicitous—because she has made neither expression of regret nor request for forgiveness, there exists none to accept, and thus no act of accepting can possibly happen.
-===Jakobson's six functions of language===
-[[Roman Jakobson]], expanding on the work of [[Karl Bühler]], described six "constitutive factors" of a [[speech act|speech event]], each of which represents the privileging of a corresponding function, and only one of which is the referential (which corresponds to the '''context''' of the speech event). The six constitutive factors and their corresponding functions are diagrammed below.
-'''The six constitutive factors of a speech event'''
-:::Context
-:::Message
-Addresser---------------------Addressee
-:::Contact
-:::Code
-<br />
-'''The six functions of language'''
-:::Referential
-:::Poetic
-Emotive-----------------------Conative
-:::Phatic
-:::Metalingual
-* The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and [[deixis|deictic]] words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."
-* The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the Addresser and is best exemplified by [[interjections]] and other sound changes that do not alter the [[denotation|denotative meaning]] of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"
-* The Conative Function engages the Addressee directly and is best illustrated by [[vocative]]s and [[imperative mood|imperatives]], e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"
-* The Poetic Function focuses on "the message for its own sake" and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.
-* The [[Phatic]] Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers.
-* The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself.
-==Related fields==
-There is considerable overlap between pragmatics and [[sociolinguistics]], since both share an interest in [[linguistic meaning]] as determined by usage in a speech community. However, sociolinguists tend to be more interested in variations in language within such communities.
-Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate elements of language to broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field of [[linguistic anthropology]]. Because pragmatics describes generally the forces in play for a given utterance, it includes the study of power, gender, race, identity, and their interactions with individual speech acts. For example, the study of [[Code-switching|code switching]] directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch in code effects a shift in pragmatic force.
-According to [[Charles W. Morris]], pragmatics tries to understand the relationship between signs and their users, while [[semantics]] tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and [[syntax]] (or "syntactics") examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied meaning of the given idea.
-[[Speech act|Speech Act Theory]], pioneered by [[J.L. Austin]] and further developed by [[John Searle]], centers around the idea of the [[performative]], a type of utterance that performs the very action it describes. Speech Act Theory's examination of [[Illocutionary act|Illocutionary Acts]] has many of the same goals as pragmatics, as outlined [[Pragmatics#Areas of interest|above]].
-Computational Pragmatics, as defined by [[Victoria Fromkin]], concerns how humans can communicate their intentions to computers with as little ambiguity as possible.  This process, integral to the science of [[Natural language processing]], involves providing a computer system with some database of knowledge related to a topic and a series of algorithms which control how the system responds to incoming data, using contextual knowledge to more accurately approximate natural human language and information processing abilities. Reference resolution, how a computer determines when two objects are different or not, is one of the most important tasks of computational pragmatics.
-==Formalization==
-There has been a great amount of discussion on the boundary between semantics and pragmatics  and there are many different formalizations of aspects of pragmatics linked to context dependence. Particularly interesting cases are the discussions on the semantics of indexicals and the problem of referential descriptions, a topic developed after the theories of [[Keith Donnellan]]. A proper logical theory of formal pragmatics has been developed by [[Carlo Dalla Pozza]], according to which it is possible to connect classical semantics (treating propositional contents as true or false) and intuitionistic semantics (dealing with illocutionary forces). The presentation of a formal treatment of pragmatics appears to be a development of the Fregean idea of assertion sign as formal sign of the act of assertion.
-==In literary theory==
-Pragmatics (more specifically, [[Speech act|Speech Act Theory's]] notion of the [[performative]]) underpins [[Judith Butler]]'s theory of [[gender performativity]]. In ''[[Gender Trouble]]'', she claims that gender and sex are not natural categories, but socially constructed roles produced by "reiterative acting."
-In [[Judith Butler#Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative|''Excitable Speech'']] she extends her theory of [[performativity]] to [[hate speech]] and [[censorship]], arguing that censorship necessarily strengthens any discourse it tries to suppress and therefore, since the state has sole power to define hate speech legally, it is the state that makes hate speech performative.
-[[Jacques Derrida]] remarked that some work done under Pragmatics aligned well with the program he outlined in his book ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.
-[[Émile Benveniste]] argued that the [[pronouns]] "I" and "you" are fundamentally distinct from other pronouns because of their role in creating the [[Subject (philosophy)|subject]].
-[[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]] discuss linguistic pragmatics in the fourth chapter of ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' ("November 20, 1923--Postulates of Linguistics"). They draw three conclusions from Austin: (1) A [[performative utterance]] does not communicate information about an act second-hand—it is the act; (2) Every aspect of language ("semantics, syntactics, or even phonematics") functionally interacts with pragmatics; (3) There is no distinction between language and speech. This last conclusion attempts to refute [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussure's]] division between [[langue and parole|''langue'' and ''parole'']] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky's]] distinction between [[surface structure]] and [[deep structure]] simultaneously.
-==Significant works==
-* [[J. L. Austin]]'s ''How To Do Things With Words''
-* [[Paul Grice]]'s [[cooperative principle]] and [[Gricean maxim|conversational maxim]]s
-* [[Politeness theory|Brown & Levinson's Politeness Theory]]
-* [[Geoffrey Leech]]'s [[politeness maxims]]
-* Levinson's Presumptive Meanings
-* [[Jürgen Habermas]]'s [[universal pragmatics]]
-* [[Dan Sperber]] and Deirdre Wilson's [[relevance theory]]
-* [[Dallin D. Oaks]]'s ''Structural Ambiguity in English: An Applied Grammatical Inventory''
 ==See also==
-* [[Anaphora (linguistics)|Anaphora]]
+*[[Ambiguous grammar]]
-* [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] (and also see: [[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography]])
+*''[[Eats, Shoots & Leaves]]''
-* [[Co-construction (linguistics)|Co-construction]]
+*[[Equivocation]]
-* [[Collapsing sequence]]
+*[[Garden path sentence]]
-* [[Deixis]]
+*[[Ibis redibis nunquam per bella peribis]]
-* [[Entailment (pragmatics)|Entailment]]
+*[[List of linguistic example sentences]]
-* [[Exegesis]]
+*[[Natural language processing]]
-* [[Formal Pragmatics]]
+*[[Paraprosdokian]]
-* [[Gricean maxims]]
+*[[The Purple People Eater]]
-* [[Implicature]]
+*[[Transderivational search]]
-* [[Indexicality]]
-* [[Mediated Stylistics]]
-* [[Origo]]
-* [[Paul Grice]]
-* [[Practical reason]]
-* [[Presupposition]]
-* [[Semantics]]
-* [[Semiotics]]
-* [[Sign relation]]
-* [[Sitz im Leben]]
-* [[Speech act]]
-* [[Speech-Language Pathology]]
-* [[Stylistics (field of study)]]
-* [[William James]]
-==References==
-* [[J. L. Austin|Austin, J. L.]] (1962) ''[[How to Do Things With Words]]''. Oxford University Press.
-* Ariel, Mira (2008), ''Pragmatics and Grammar'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
-* Brown, Penelope, and [[Stephen C. Levinson]]. (1978) ''Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage''. Cambridge University Press.
-* [[Robyn Carston|Carston, Robyn]] (2002) ''Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication''. Oxford: Blackwell.
-* [[Herb Clark|Clark, Herbert H.]] (1996)  "Using Language". Cambridge University Press.
-* Cole, Peter, ed.. (1978) ''Pragmatics''.  (Syntax and Semantics, 9). New York: Academic Press.
-* [[Teun A. van Dijk|Dijk, Teun A. van.]] (1977) ''Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse''. London: Longman.
-* [[H. Paul Grice|Grice, H. Paul]]. (1989) ''Studies in the Way of Words''. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
-* Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward. (2005) ''The Handbook of Pragmatics''. Blackwell.
-* Leech, Geoffrey N. (1983) ''Principles of Pragmatics''. London: Longman.
-* [[Stephen C. Levinson|Levinson, Stephen C.]] (1983) ''Pragmatics''. Cambridge University Press.
-* [[Stephen C. Levinson|Levinson, Stephen C.]] (2000). Presumptive meanings: The theory of generalized conversational implicature. MIT Press.
-* Lin, G. H. C., & Perkins, L. (2005). Cross-cultural discourse of giving and accepting gifts. International Journal of Communication, 16,1-2, 103-12 (ERIC Collections in ED 503685 http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED503685.pdf)
-* [[Jacob L. Mey|Mey, Jacob L.]] (1993) ''Pragmatics: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).
-* Kepa Korta and John Perry. (2006) [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatics/ ''Pragmatics'']. The [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
-* Potts, Christopher. (2005) ''The Logic of Conventional Implicatures''. Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-* [[Douglas Robinson (academic)|Robinson, Douglas]]. (2003). ''Performative Linguistics: Speaking and Translating as Doing Things With Words''. London and New York: Routledge.
-* Robinson, Douglas. (2006). ''Introducing Performative Pragmatics''. London and New York: Routledge.
-* Sperber, Dan and Wilson, Deirdre. (2005) [http://www.dan.sperber.com/pragmatics.htm Pragmatics]. In F. Jackson and M. Smith (eds.) Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy. OUP, Oxford, 468-501. (Also available [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927024359/http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/deirdre/papers/Pragmatics2005.doc here].)
-* Thomas, Jenny (1995) ''Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics''. Longman.
-* Verschueren, Jef. (1999) [https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/rg/ipra/research/publications/books/ ''Understanding Pragmatics'']. London, New York: Arnold Publishers.
-* Verschueren, Jef, Jan-Ola Östman, Jan Blommaert, eds. (1995) ''Handbook of Pragmatics''. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
-* [[Watzlawick]], Paul, Janet Helmick Beavin and Don D. Jackson (1967) ''Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes''. New York: Norton.
-* [[Anna Wierzbicka|Wierzbicka, Anna]] (1991) ''Cross-cultural Pragmatics. The Semantics of Human Interaction''. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
-* Yule, George (1996) ''Pragmatics'' (Oxford Introductions to Language Study). Oxford University Press.
-* Silverstein, Michael. 1976. "Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description," in Meaning and Anthropology, Basso and Selby, eds. New York: Harper & Row
-* Wardhaugh, Ronald. (2006). "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". Blackwell.
-* Duranti, Alessandro. (1997). "Linguistic Anthropology". Cambridge University Press.
-* Carbaugh, Donal. (1990). "Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact." LEA.
 {{GFDL}}