Chronology of the ancient Near East  

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The short chronology is one chronology of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728 BC – 1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC.

The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from this decision have very little support in academia, particularly after more recent research. The middle chronology (reign of Hammurabi 1792 BC – 1750 BC) is still commonly encountered in literature and the most recent work has essentially disproved this ultra-short chronology.

Early Bronze Age

Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the 2nd half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible.

Kings of Ebla

The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) contested for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeats Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla is destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. <ref>A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla, Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 55, 2003, pp. 1-44</ref>

Sumer

Third Dynasty of Uruk

Lugal-zage-si of Umma briefly rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire. <ref>Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions: Presargonic Inscriptions, Jerold S. Cooper, Eisenbrauns, 1986, ISBN 094049082X</ref>

Dynasty of Akkad

Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. The last king of the empire, Shar-kali-sharri managed to mostly hold things together but upon his death, the empire fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself is destroyed by the Guti. <ref>The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization, H. Weiss et al., Science, Aug 20, pp. 995-1004, 1993</ref> <ref>Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts, Rosetta 1, pp 1-9, 2006</ref> <ref>The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334-2113), Douglas R. Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1993, ISBN 0802005934</ref>

Gutian Kings

First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk. Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list. <ref>Reallexikon der Assyriologie by Erich Ebling, Bruno Meissner, 1993, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 311003705X</ref>

Second Dynasty of Lagash

Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian King, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma.<ref>Gudea and His Dynasty, Dietz Otto Edzard, 1997, University of Toronto Press ISBN 0802041876</ref> Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. <ref>The Calendar of Neo-Sumerian Ur and Its Political Significance, Magnus Widell, University of Chicago, 2004</ref>

Fifth Dynasty of Uruk

Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. <ref>A Sumerian reading-book, C.J Gadd, The Clarendon Press, 1924</ref>

Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance)

In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur.<ref>The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330 B.C. By Amélie Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0415167620</ref> <ref>Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0802041981</ref> <ref>The ruling family of Ur III Umma. A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago, J.L. Dahl, UCLA dissertation, 2003</ref>

Middle Bronze Age

The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries)

First Dynasty of Isin

After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I.<ref>Kings of Isin Year Names</ref><ref>The Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595), Douglas R. Frayne, University Of Toronto Press, 1990, ISBN 0802058736</ref>

Kings of Larsa

The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II.<ref>The Rulers of Larsa, M. Fitzgerald, Yale University Dissertation, 2002</ref> <ref>Larsa Year Names, Marcel Segrist, Andrews University Press, 1990, ISBN 0943872545</ref> <ref>Chronology of the Larsa Dynasty, E.M. Grice, C.E. Keiser, M. Jastrow, AMS Press, 1979, ISBN 0404602746</ref>

First Babylonian Dynasty (Dynasty I)

Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents.<ref>Chronicle of early kings at Livius.org</ref><ref>The Proclamation of Telipinu</ref>

1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon)

When the names of Sealand Dynasty kings were found on cuneiform records like the Babylonian Kings Lists, Chronicle 20, Chronicle of the Early Kings, and the Synchronistic King List, it was assumed that the dynasty slotted in between the First Dynasty of Babylon and the Kassites. <ref>Albert Kirk Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles, Eisenbrauns, 2000 ISBN 1575060493</ref> Later discoveries changed this to the assumption that the dynasty ran entirely in parallel to the others. Modern scholarship has made it clear that the Sealand Dynasty did in fact control Babylon and the remnants of its empire for a time after its sack by the Hittites in 1531 BC. <ref>W. G. Lambert, The Home of the First Sealand Dynasty, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 208-210, 1974</ref> <ref>Stephanie Dalley, Babylonian Tablets from The First Sealand Dynasty in the Schoyen Collection, CDL Press, 2009 ISBN 1934309087</ref>

Hittite Old Kingdom

The absolute chronology of the Hittite Old Kingdom hinges entirely on the date of the sack of Babylon. In 1531 BC, for reasons that are still extremely unclear, Mursili I marched roughly 500 miles from Aleppo to Babylon, sacked it, and then promptly returned home, never to return. Other than that event, all the available chronological synchronisms are local to the region in and near Anatolia.

Late Bronze Age

The Middle Assyrian period (14th to 12th centuries)

Third Babylon Dynasty (Kassite)

The Kassites first appeared during the reign of Samsu-iluna of the First Babylonian Dynasty and after being defeated by Babylon, moved to control the city-state of Mari. Some undetermined amount of time after the fall of Babylon, the Kassites established a new Babylonian dynasty. The Babylonian king list identifies 36 kings reigning 576 years, however, only about 18 names are legible. A few more were identified by inscriptions. There is some confusion in the middle part of the dynasty because of conflicts between the Synchronistic Chronicle and Chronicle P. The later kings are well attested from kudurru steles. Relative dating is from sychronisms with Egypt, Assyria and the Hittites. The dynasty ends with the defeat of Enlil-nadin-ahi by Elam. <ref>The Collapse of a Complex State, A Reappraisal of the End of the First Dynasty of Babylon 1683-1597 B.C., Seth Richardson, dissertation, Columbia University, 2002</ref>

Mitanni

Perhaps because the capital of Mitanni, Washukanni, has not yet been found, there are no available king lists, year lists, or royal inscriptions. Fortunately, a fair amount of diplomatic, Hittite, and Assyrian sources exist to firm up the chronology. Having become powerful under Shaushtatar, Mitanni eventually falls into the traditional trap of dynasties, the contest for succession. Tushratta and Artatama II both claim the kingship and the Hittites and Assyrians take advantage of the situation. After that, Mitanni was no longer a factor in the region. <ref>Pharaoh and his Brothers, S Jakob</ref> <ref>Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East, Trevor Bryce, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 041525857X</ref>

Assyrian Middle Kingdom

Long a minor player, after the defeat of its neighbor Mitanni by the Hittites, Assyria rises to the ranks of a major power under Ashur-uballit I. The period is marked by conflict with rivals Babylon and the Hittites as well as diplomatic exchanges with Egypt, in the Amarna letters. Note that after the excavation, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of various Neo-Assyrian documents, such as the Assyrian king list, scholars assumed that the chronological data for earlier Assyrian periods could be taken as accurate history. That view has changed over the years and the early Assyrian chronology is being re-assessed. Since there is yet no consensus, the traditional order and regnal lengths will be followed. <ref>Comments on the Nassouhi Kinglist and the Assyrian Kinglist Tradition, J.A. Brinkman, Orientalia N.S 42, 1973</ref> <ref>Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC, A.K. Grayson, University of Toronto Press, 1987, ISBN 0802026052</ref> <ref>The Chronology of Ancient Assyria Re-assessed, B. Newgrosh, JACF, vol. 08, pp. 78-106, 1999</ref>

Hittite New Kingdom

Beginning under his father, Suppiluliuma I brought the Hittites from obscurity into an empire that lasts for almost 150 years. The Hittite New Kingdom reaches its height after the defeat of Mitanni, an event which ironically leads to the rise of Assyria. The dynasty ends with the destruction of Hattusa by parties undetermined but which may have included the Sea People and the Kaskians. <ref>Bryce, T., 'The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective', BMSAES 6 (2006), 1-11</ref> <ref>Sürenhagen, D., 'Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty', BMSAES 6 (2006), 59-67</ref> <ref>Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. EISENBRAUNS, 2003, ISBN 1575060795</ref> <ref>Hittite Diplomatic Texts, G Brinkman, Scholars Press, 1999, ISBN 0788505513</ref>

Kings of Ugarit

A client state of Mitanni and later the Hittites, Ugarit was nonetheless a significant player in the region. While regnal lengths and an absolute chronology for Ugarit are not yet available, the known order of kings and some firm synchronisms make it reasonably placeable in time. The fall of Ugarit has been narrowed down to the range from the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah to the 8th year of Pharaoh Rameses III of Egypt. This is roughly the same time that Hattusa is destroyed. <ref>Handbook of Ugaritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, Brill, 1999, ISBN 9004109889</ref> <ref>The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, Marguerite Yon, Eisenbrauns, 2006, ISBN 1575060299</ref>

Iron Age

The Early Iron Age (12th to 7th centuries BC). While not subject to the long versus short dating issue, chronology in the Ancient Near East is not on a firm footing until the rise of the Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian rulers in their respective regions. The dates, regnal lengths, and even the names of a number of rulers from that interim period are still unknown. To make matters worse, the few surviving records, such as the Synchronistic Chronicle, give conflicting data. <ref>John Anthony Brinkman, A political history of post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158-722 B.C, Biblical Institute Press, 1968, ISBN 8876532439</ref>

Second Dynasty of Isin

After the fall of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon to Elam, power in the region, and control of Babylon, swung to the city-state of Isin. Assyria at this time was extremely weak, except during the reign of the powerful Assyrian ruler Tiglath-Pileser I. Other polities in the area had yet to recover from the Bronze Age collapse. <ref>A Poebel, The Second Dynasty of Isin According to a New King-List Tablet, in Assyriological Studies 15, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1955</ref> <ref>J. A. Brinkman, Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 624 B. C.: The Documentary Evidence, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 271-281, 1972</ref>

Middle-Assyrian period

After the Middle Assyrian Kingdom there is an uncertain period in Assyrian history. The current cornerstone of chronology for this time is the Assyrian King List which, unfortuneately, conflicts with other records such as the Synchronised King List and the Babylonian King List. In any event, the rulers of Assyria in this time were all fairly weak, except for Tiglath-Pileser I. Note too that this chronology is based on assumed synchronisms with Egypt in the previous period.

Babylon

Dynasties V to IX of Babylon (post-Kassite):

Neo-Assyrian Empire

The Assyrian empire rises to become the dominant power in the ancient Near East for over two centuries. This occurs despite the efforts of various other strong groups that existed in this period, including Babylon, Urartu, Damascus, Elam, and Egypt. <ref>Landscape and Settlement in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, T. J. Wilkinson, E. B. Wilkinson, J. Ur, M. Altaweel, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Nov 2005</ref> <ref>Neo-Assyrian Eponym List Livius.org</ref> <ref>Empires and Exploitation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire, P Bedford, WA Perth, 2001</ref>

Babylon

Dynasties X of Babylon (Assyrian):

Babylon was under the direct control of Neo-Assyrian rulers or their appointed governors for much of this period.

Classical Antiquity

For times after Assurbanipal (died 627 BC), see:

• Median Empire (728 – 549 BC), see List of Kings of the Medes
• Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 – 539 BC)
• Achaemenid Empire (550 – 330 BC)

The Hellenistic period begins with the conquests of Alexander the Great in 330 BC.

See also

• Timeline of the Middle East
• Chronology of the ancient Near East