Postmodernism
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| Postmodernist ideas in the [[philosophy]] and the analysis of [[culture]] and [[society]], expanded the importance of [[critical theory]], and has been the point of departure for works of [[literature]], [[architecture]], and [[design]], as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of [[history]], [[law]] and [[culture]], starting in the [[late 20th century]]. These developments — re-evaluation of the entire Western value system ([[love]], [[marriage]], [[popular culture]], shift from [[industrial society|industrial]] to [[service economy]]) that took place since 1950/1960, with a peak in the Social Revolution of [[1968]] — are described with the term ''[[postmodernity]]'', as opposed to the "[[-ism]]" referring to an opinion or movement. As something being "postmodernist" would be part of the movement, "postmodern" would refer to aspects of the period of the time since the [[1950s]], a part of [[contemporary history]]; still both terms may be synonymous under some circumstances. | Postmodernist ideas in the [[philosophy]] and the analysis of [[culture]] and [[society]], expanded the importance of [[critical theory]], and has been the point of departure for works of [[literature]], [[architecture]], and [[design]], as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of [[history]], [[law]] and [[culture]], starting in the [[late 20th century]]. These developments — re-evaluation of the entire Western value system ([[love]], [[marriage]], [[popular culture]], shift from [[industrial society|industrial]] to [[service economy]]) that took place since 1950/1960, with a peak in the Social Revolution of [[1968]] — are described with the term ''[[postmodernity]]'', as opposed to the "[[-ism]]" referring to an opinion or movement. As something being "postmodernist" would be part of the movement, "postmodern" would refer to aspects of the period of the time since the [[1950s]], a part of [[contemporary history]]; still both terms may be synonymous under some circumstances. | ||
| + | ==Influence on aesthetics== | ||
| + | ===Architecture=== | ||
| + | :''[[Postmodern architecture]]'' | ||
| + | |||
| + | The movement of Postmodernism began with [[architecture]], as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and Utopianism of the Modern movement. [[Modern Architecture]], as established and developed by people such as [[Walter Gropius]], [[Le Corbusier]], and [[Philip Johnson]], was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of "frivolous ornament." Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out [[anachronism]]s in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy. Definitive postmodern architecture such as the work of [[Michael Graves]] rejects the notion of a 'pure' form or 'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. Postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge Modernism as antiquated and "totalitarian", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate truths or principles. It is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that distinguishes many postmodernisms. | ||
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| + | ===Literature=== | ||
| + | |||
| + | :''[[Postmodern literature]]'' | ||
| + | |||
| + | Literary postmodernism was officially coronated in the United States with the first issue of ''[[boundary 2]]'', subtitled "Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture", which appeared in 1972. [[David Antin]], [[Charles Olson]], [[John Cage]], and the [[Black Mountain College]] school of poetry and the arts were integral figures in the intellectual and artistic exposition of postmodernism at the time. ''boundary 2'' remains an influential journal in postmodernist circles today. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Some other significant contributions to postmodern culture from literary figures include the following: | ||
| + | * [[Jorge Luis Borges]] experimented in [[metafiction]] and [[magical realism]] | ||
| + | * [[William S. Burroughs]] wrote the prototypical postmodern novel ''[[Naked Lunch]]'' and developed the [[cut up]] method (similar to [[Tristan Tzara]]'s "How to Make a Dadaist Poem") to create other novels such as ''[[Nova Express]]'' | ||
| + | * [[Samuel Beckett]] attempted to escape the shadow of [[James Joyce]] by focusing on the failure of language, schizophrenia, and humanity's inability to overcome its condition, themes later to be explored in such works as ''[[Waiting for Godot]]''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | It is possible to identify the burgeoning anti-establishment movements of the 1960s as the constituting event of postmodernism. The theory gained some of its strongest ground early on in French academia. In 1971, the Arab-American theorist [[Ihab Hassan]] was one of the first to use the term in its present form (though it had been used by many others before him, [[Charles Olson]] for example, to refer to other literary trends, as discussed above) in his book: ''The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature''; in it, Hassan traces the development of what he called "literature of silence" through [[Marquis de Sade]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the [[Theatre of the Absurd]] and the [[nouveau roman]]. In 1979 [[Jean-François Lyotard]] wrote a short but influential work ''[[The Postmodern Condition|The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge]]''. [[Richard Rorty]] wrote ''[[Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature]]'' (1979). [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Michel Foucault]], and [[Roland Barthes]] are also influential in 1970s postmodern theory. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Music=== | ||
| + | |||
| + | :''[[Postmodern music]]'' | ||
| + | The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1970s with the advent of musical [[minimalism]]. Composers such as [[Terry Riley]], [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]], [[Steve Reich]], [[Phillip Glass]], and [[Lou Harrison]] reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies. Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions. Though representing a general return to certain notions of music-making that are often considered to be classical or romantic{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}, not all postmodern composers have eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. The works of Dutch composer [[Louis Andriessen]], for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic. Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition. | ||
| == Context == | == Context == | ||
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Postmodernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism.
Postmodernism (sometimes abbreviated Pomo) was originally a reaction to modernism (not necessarily "post" in the purely temporal sense of "after"). Largely influenced by the disillusionment induced by the Second World War, postmodernism tends to refer to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, and interconnectedness or interreferentiality.
Postmodernity is a derivative referring to non-art aspects of history that were influenced by the new movement, namely the evolutions in society, economy and culture since the 1960s. When the idea of a reaction to—or even a rejection of—the movement of modernism (a late 19th, early 20th centuries art movement) was borrowed by other fields, it became synonymous in some contexts with postmodernity. The term is closely linked with poststructuralism (cf. Jacques Derrida) and with modernism, in terms of a rejection of its bourgeois, elitist culture.
The term was coined in 1949 to describe a dissatisfaction with modern architecture, leading to the postmodern architecture movement. Later, the term was applied to several movements, including in art, music, and literature, that reacted against modern movements, and are typically marked by revival of traditional elements and techniques. Postmodernism in architecture is marked by the re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, and non-orthogonal angles. It may be a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style.
If used in other contexts, it is a concept without a universally accepted, short and simple definition; in a variety of contexts it is used to describe social conditions, movements in the arts, and scholarship (incl. criticism) in reaction to modernism.
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Influence and distinction from postmodernity
Postmodernist ideas in the philosophy and the analysis of culture and society, expanded the importance of critical theory, and has been the point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century. These developments — re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since 1950/1960, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968 — are described with the term postmodernity, as opposed to the "-ism" referring to an opinion or movement. As something being "postmodernist" would be part of the movement, "postmodern" would refer to aspects of the period of the time since the 1950s, a part of contemporary history; still both terms may be synonymous under some circumstances.
Influence on aesthetics
Architecture
The movement of Postmodernism began with architecture, as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and Utopianism of the Modern movement. Modern Architecture, as established and developed by people such as Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Philip Johnson, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of "frivolous ornament." Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy. Definitive postmodern architecture such as the work of Michael Graves rejects the notion of a 'pure' form or 'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. Postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge Modernism as antiquated and "totalitarian", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate truths or principles. It is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that distinguishes many postmodernisms.
Literature
Literary postmodernism was officially coronated in the United States with the first issue of boundary 2, subtitled "Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture", which appeared in 1972. David Antin, Charles Olson, John Cage, and the Black Mountain College school of poetry and the arts were integral figures in the intellectual and artistic exposition of postmodernism at the time. boundary 2 remains an influential journal in postmodernist circles today.
Some other significant contributions to postmodern culture from literary figures include the following:
- Jorge Luis Borges experimented in metafiction and magical realism
- William S. Burroughs wrote the prototypical postmodern novel Naked Lunch and developed the cut up method (similar to Tristan Tzara's "How to Make a Dadaist Poem") to create other novels such as Nova Express
- Samuel Beckett attempted to escape the shadow of James Joyce by focusing on the failure of language, schizophrenia, and humanity's inability to overcome its condition, themes later to be explored in such works as Waiting for Godot.
It is possible to identify the burgeoning anti-establishment movements of the 1960s as the constituting event of postmodernism. The theory gained some of its strongest ground early on in French academia. In 1971, the Arab-American theorist Ihab Hassan was one of the first to use the term in its present form (though it had been used by many others before him, Charles Olson for example, to refer to other literary trends, as discussed above) in his book: The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature; in it, Hassan traces the development of what he called "literature of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman. In 1979 Jean-François Lyotard wrote a short but influential work The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge. Richard Rorty wrote Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979). Jean Baudrillard, Michel Foucault, and Roland Barthes are also influential in 1970s postmodern theory.
Music
The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1970s with the advent of musical minimalism. Composers such as Terry Riley, John Adams, Steve Reich, Phillip Glass, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies. Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions. Though representing a general return to certain notions of music-making that are often considered to be classical or romanticTemplate:Citation needed, not all postmodern composers have eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic. Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.
Context
By medium: postmodern art - postmodern architecture - postmodern literature - postmodern film - postmodern music
Early theorists: Fredric Jameson - Jean-François Lyotard - Ihab Hassan - Charles Jencks
Critics and connoisseurs: Alan Sokal - Linda Hutcheon - Andreas Huyssen - John McGowan
By field: post-feminism - postmodern philosophy
Techniques: appropriation - collage - deconstruction - death of the avant-garde - eclecticism - fragmentation - intertextuality - montage - nonlinearity - parody - pastiche - playfulness - the techniques of Pop Art - randomness - self referentiality - relativism
Related: consumerism - critical theory - hyperreality - metanarrative - post-industrial society - postmodernity - post-structuralism - semiotics - simulacrum
Preceded by: Modernism
Precursors: Dada - Surrealism
See also
- Quotes on postmodernism
- The development of postmodernism
- Aesthetic relativism
- List of postmodern authors
- Nobrow
- Postmodern architecture
- Continental philosophy
- Postmodern psychopathic characters
