Middle Ages  

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In the decorative arts, Celtic and Germanic barbarian forms were absorbed into Christian art, although the central impulse remained Roman and Byzantine. High quality jewellery and religious imagery were produced throughout Western Europe; [[Charlemagne]] and other monarchs provided patronage for religious artworks such as [[reliquaries]] and books. Some of the principal artworks of the age were the fabulous [[Illuminated manuscripts]] produced by monks on [[vellum]], using gold, silver, and precious pigments to illustrate biblical narratives. Early examples include the [[Book of Kells]] and many Carolingian and Ottonian Frankish manuscripts. In the decorative arts, Celtic and Germanic barbarian forms were absorbed into Christian art, although the central impulse remained Roman and Byzantine. High quality jewellery and religious imagery were produced throughout Western Europe; [[Charlemagne]] and other monarchs provided patronage for religious artworks such as [[reliquaries]] and books. Some of the principal artworks of the age were the fabulous [[Illuminated manuscripts]] produced by monks on [[vellum]], using gold, silver, and precious pigments to illustrate biblical narratives. Early examples include the [[Book of Kells]] and many Carolingian and Ottonian Frankish manuscripts.
-=== Science and technology of the High Middle Ages===+== Science and technology of the High Middle Ages==
During the early Middle Ages and the [[Islamic Golden Age]], [[Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic science|science]], and [[Islamic inventions|technology]] were more advanced than in Western Europe. Islamic scholars both preserved and built upon earlier [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] traditions and also added their own inventions and innovations. Islamic [[al-Andalus]] passed much of this on to Europe (see [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]]). The replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]] allowed more advanced mathematics. Another consequence was that the Latin-speaking world regained access to lost classical literature and [[philosophy]]. [[Latin translations of the 12th century]] fed a passion for [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] philosophy and [[Islamic science]] that is frequently referred to as the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Meanwhile, trade grew throughout Europe as the dangers of travel were reduced, and steady economic growth resumed. Cathedral schools and monasteries ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when [[medieval university|universities]] were established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in [[art]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], and [[architecture]]. Large [[cathedral]]s were built across [[Europe]], first in the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], and later in the more decorative [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style. During the early Middle Ages and the [[Islamic Golden Age]], [[Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic science|science]], and [[Islamic inventions|technology]] were more advanced than in Western Europe. Islamic scholars both preserved and built upon earlier [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] traditions and also added their own inventions and innovations. Islamic [[al-Andalus]] passed much of this on to Europe (see [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]]). The replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]] allowed more advanced mathematics. Another consequence was that the Latin-speaking world regained access to lost classical literature and [[philosophy]]. [[Latin translations of the 12th century]] fed a passion for [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] philosophy and [[Islamic science]] that is frequently referred to as the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Meanwhile, trade grew throughout Europe as the dangers of travel were reduced, and steady economic growth resumed. Cathedral schools and monasteries ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when [[medieval university|universities]] were established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in [[art]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], and [[architecture]]. Large [[cathedral]]s were built across [[Europe]], first in the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], and later in the more decorative [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style.

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The Middle Ages is a period in European history following Classical antiquity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire, spanning roughly the 10 centuries from AD 500 to 1500. It was a period of great cultural, political, and economic change in Europe. The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Modern European states owe their origins to the Middle Ages, and their political boundaries as we know them are essentially the result of the military and dynastic achievements in this tumultuous period. Science, technology, agricultural production, and social identity changed drastically during this period.

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Art and architecture of the Early Middle Ages

Few large stone buildings were attempted between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century, and the 8th century. At this time, the establishment of churches and monasteries, and a comparative political stability, brought about the development of a form of stone architecture loosely based upon Roman forms and hence later named Romanesque. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the fairly tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. The features are massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults and arrows

In the decorative arts, Celtic and Germanic barbarian forms were absorbed into Christian art, although the central impulse remained Roman and Byzantine. High quality jewellery and religious imagery were produced throughout Western Europe; Charlemagne and other monarchs provided patronage for religious artworks such as reliquaries and books. Some of the principal artworks of the age were the fabulous Illuminated manuscripts produced by monks on vellum, using gold, silver, and precious pigments to illustrate biblical narratives. Early examples include the Book of Kells and many Carolingian and Ottonian Frankish manuscripts.

Science and technology of the High Middle Ages

During the early Middle Ages and the Islamic Golden Age, Islamic philosophy, science, and technology were more advanced than in Western Europe. Islamic scholars both preserved and built upon earlier Ancient Greek and Roman traditions and also added their own inventions and innovations. Islamic al-Andalus passed much of this on to Europe (see Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe). The replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra allowed more advanced mathematics. Another consequence was that the Latin-speaking world regained access to lost classical literature and philosophy. Latin translations of the 12th century fed a passion for Aristotelian philosophy and Islamic science that is frequently referred to as the Renaissance of the 12th century. Meanwhile, trade grew throughout Europe as the dangers of travel were reduced, and steady economic growth resumed. Cathedral schools and monasteries ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities were established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music, and architecture. Large cathedrals were built across Europe, first in the Romanesque, and later in the more decorative Gothic style.

During the 12th and 13th century in Europe, there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. The period saw major technological advances, including the invention of cannon, spectacles, and artesian wells, and the cross-cultural introduction of gunpowder, silk, the compass, and the astrolabe from the east. There were also great improvements to ships and the clock. The latter advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Exploration. At the same time, huge numbers of Greek and Arabic works on medicine and the sciences were translated and distributed throughout Europe. Aristotle especially became very important, his rational and logical approach to knowledge influencing the scholars at the newly forming universities which were absorbing and disseminating the new knowledge during the 12th Century Renaissance.

Culture

See also

Middle Ages related pages:




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