John Calvin
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| - | :''[[Calvinism]], [[16th century Europe]], [[Northern Renaissance]], [[Protestant work ethic]], [[iconoclasm]]'' | + | '''John Calvin''' (10 July 1509 - 27 May 1564) was a French [[Christian theology|theologian]], [[pastor]] and [[Protestant Reformers|reformer]] in [[Geneva]] during the [[Protestant Reformation]]. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of [[Christian theology]] later called [[Calvinism]], aspects of which include the doctrines of [[predestination]] and of the [[monergism|absolute sovereignty]] of God in [[salvation]] of the human soul from death and [[damnation|eternal damnation]], in which doctrines [[Augustine's influence on John Calvin|Calvin was influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian]] and other Christian traditions. Various [[Congregational church|Congregational]], [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] and [[Presbyterian]] churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. |
| - | '''John Calvin''' ''né'' '''Jean Cauvin''' (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was an influential [[French theologian]] and pastor during the [[Protestant Reformation]]. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of [[Christian theology]] later called [[Calvinism]]. Originally trained as a [[Renaissance Humanism|humanist]] lawyer, he suddenly broke from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the 1520s. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]], where in 1536 he published the first edition of his seminal work ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]''. | + | |
| - | Calvin was invited by [[William Farel]] to help reform the church in [[Geneva]]. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin and Farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of [[Martin Bucer]], Calvin proceeded to [[Strasbourg]], where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. Following his return, he introduced new forms of church government and [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]], despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, [[Michael Servetus]], a Spaniard known for his [[Christian heresy|heretical]] views, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and executed by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. | + | Calvin was a tireless [[polemicist]] and [[Christian apologetics|apologetic]] writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and [[Heinrich Bullinger]]. In addition to his seminal ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'', Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, [[confession of faith|confessional documents]], and various other theological treatises. |
| - | Calvin was a tireless [[polemic]] and [[Christian apologetics|apologetic]] writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers including [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and [[Heinrich Bullinger]]. In addition to the ''Institutes'', he wrote commentaries on most books of the [[Bible]] as well as theological treatises and [[confession of faith|confessional documents]], and he regularly gave sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of [[predestination]] and the [[monergism|absolute sovereignty]] of God in [[salvation]]. | + | Calvin was originally trained as a [[Renaissance Humanism|humanist]] lawyer. He broke from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] around 1530. After religious tensions erupted in widespread deadly violence against [[Protestant Christians]] in France, Calvin fled to [[Basel]], Switzerland, where in 1536 he published the first edition of the ''Institutes''. In that same year, Calvin was recruited by Frenchman [[William Farel]] to join the Reformation in [[Geneva]], where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week; but the governing council of the city resisted the implementation of their ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of [[Martin Bucer]], Calvin proceeded to [[Strasbourg]], where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city. |
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| - | Calvin's writing and preaching provided the seeds for the branch of theology that bears his name. The [[Presbyterian]] and other [[Reformed churches]], which look to Calvin as a chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin's thought exerted considerable influence over major religious figures and entire religious movements, such as [[Puritan]]ism, and his ideas have been cited as contributing to the rise of [[capitalism]], [[individualism]], and [[representative democracy]] in the West. | + | |
| - | ==Legacy== | + | |
| - | [[Image:John Calvin Titian B.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Calvin by [[Titian]].]] | + | |
| - | After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain. Increasing secularisation was accompanied by the decline of the church. Even the Geneva ''académie'' was eclipsed by universities in [[Leiden University|Leiden]] and [[University of Heidelberg|Heidelberg]], which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as "[[Calvinism]]" by Joachim Westphal in 1552. By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol. However, Calvin had always warned against describing him as an "idol" and Geneva as a new "Jerusalem". He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves. Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in [[Wesel]], Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches. Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church. Calvin’s recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe. | + | |
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| - | Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the [[Electoral Palatinate|Palatinate]] under [[Frederick III, Elector Palatine|Frederick III]], which led to the formulation of the [[Heidelberg Catechism]] in 1563. This and the [[Belgic Confession]] were adopted as confessional standards in the [[Synod of Emden|first synod]] of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, [[Pietro Martire Vermigli|Peter Martyr]], and [[Jan Laski]]) and Scotland ([[John Knox]]). During the [[English Civil War]], the Calvinistic [[Puritan]]s produced the [[Westminster Confession]], which became the confessional standard for [[Presbyterians]] in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea. Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character. | + | |
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| - | Calvin's legacy in modern times has produced a variety of opinions. Certainly the execution of [[Servetus]] has left a negative view of Calvin. [[Voltaire]] mentions the event in his ''Poème sur la loi naturelle'' (Poem on Natural Law, 1756) and ''Dialogues chrétiens'' (Christian Dialogues, 1760). For Voltaire, Calvin’s philosophy had not produced any improvement over the intolerance presented in previous revealed religions. Calvin is discussed in [[Max Weber]]’s classic work ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'' in which he argues that Calvin's teachings provided ideological impetus for the development of [[capitalism]]. Political historians have recognised his contributions to the development of [[representative democracy]] in general and the [[Federal government of the United States|American system of government]] in particular; the doctrine of sin and human fallibility, for instance, lent support to a division of authority in a system of [[checks and balances]], and Calvin's ideas on [[Christian liberty]] contributed to the growth of religious freedom and the openness of society. | + | |
| + | Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]], despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, [[Michael Servetus]], a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having a [[Christian heresy|heretical]] view of the [[Trinity]], arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and [[burned at the stake]] for heresy by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. | ||
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Illustration: The image breakers, c.1566 –1568 by Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder
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John Calvin (10 July 1509 - 27 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, aspects of which include the doctrines of predestination and of the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation, in which doctrines Calvin was influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian and other Christian traditions. Various Congregational, Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world.
Calvin was a tireless polemicist and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to his seminal Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents, and various other theological treatises.
Calvin was originally trained as a humanist lawyer. He broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions erupted in widespread deadly violence against Protestant Christians in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where in 1536 he published the first edition of the Institutes. In that same year, Calvin was recruited by Frenchman William Farel to join the Reformation in Geneva, where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week; but the governing council of the city resisted the implementation of their ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city.
Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having a heretical view of the Trinity, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and burned at the stake for heresy by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe.
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