Hunter-gatherer
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| + | A '''hunter-gatherer''' society is one whose primary [[List of subsistence techniques|subsistence method]] involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild, [[foraging]] and [[hunting]] without significant recourse to the [[domestication]] of either. | ||
| + | The demarcation between hunter-gatherers and other societies which rely more upon domestication (see [[agriculture]] and [[pastoralism]] and [[neolithic revolution]]) is not a clear-cut one, as many contemporary societies use a combination of both strategies to obtain the [[foodstuff]]s required to sustain themselves. | ||
| - | '''''The Third Wave''''' is a book published in [[1980]] by [[Alvin Toffler]]. It is the sequel to [[Future Shock]], published in 1970, and the second in a trilogy that was completed with [[Powershift (book)|Powershift]] in 1990. | + | Hunting and gathering was presumably the only subsistence strategy employed by [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[societies]] for more than two million years, until the end of the [[Mesolithic]] period. |
| + | The transition into the subsequent [[Neolithic]] period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. | ||
| + | Agriculture [[neolithic Revolution|originated and spread]] in several different areas including the [[Middle East]], [[Asia]], [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes]] beginning as early as [[10th millennium BC|12,000 years ago]]. | ||
| + | Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have perpetually declined partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. | ||
| + | Areas which were formerly unrestricted to hunter-gatherers were, and continue to be encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. | ||
| + | In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. [[Jared Diamond]] has also blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the [[Pleistocene]], according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, although the [[Pleistocene extinctions|overkill hypothesis]] he advocates is strongly contested. | ||
| - | ==Anthropological Interpretation== | + | As the number and size of many agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion soon led to the development of complex [[Form of government|forms of government]] in agricultural centers such as the [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Ancient India]], [[Ancient China]], [[Olmec]], and [[Norte Chico]]; and set in motion the impetus for further expansion through [[war]]fare and [[colonization]]. |
| - | The transition from the earlier [[hunter-gatherer]] societies to the agrarian and agricultural societies is also known as the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. This coincides with the transition from the [[Mesolithic]] era to the [[Neolithic]] era (respectively, the Middle and Late [[Stone Age]]). The transition from the [[Paleolithic]] to the [[Mesolithic]] (Early to Middle Stone Age), in turn, largely coincides with the emergence of the modern [[Homo sapiens]] from earlier, related [[Archaic Homo sapiens|archaic human]] species. | + | |
| - | Nearly extinct in the present-day world, hunter-gatherer societies (which one might term the "0th Wave" societies) are not recognized in Toffler's scheme. Similarly, in the classical [[Three-age system]], distinctions are recognized between the [[Stone Age]] era [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]], the boundary between the latter two c. 1300-1200 BC being as dramatic as that demarcating Toffler's waves. None of these phases are clearly recognized in the Toffler scheme, in part due to the prevalence of the latter phase amongst present-day [[pre-industrial society|pre-industrial societies]]. | + | As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer [[culture]]s usually live in areas seen as undesirable for agricultural use. |
| - | + | ||
| - | The transition from Toffler's First Wave and Second Wave is sometimes also recognized as a transition from the [[Iron Age]] to the [[Industrial Revolution|Steel Age]]. At present, there is no clear delineation of the latest transition, though sometimes the term [[Post-industrial society]], originating from [[Daniel Bell]], is used, in addition to Toffler's "Third Wave society". | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==Key Characteristics Of The Third Wave Society== | + | |
| - | Though the society foreseen is still emerging, with the dramatic transitions of the past two decades (e.g. [[Cell Phones]], [[Internet]], the rise of non-national and super-national powers, etc.), several distinguishing features were posed as characteristic of this new society. Among others, these included | + | |
| - | * The rolling back of the Industrial-Era creed of "standardization", as exemplified in the one-size-fits-all approach typical of institutions of this era, such as the education system, factories, governments, mass media, high volume mass production and distribution, etc. | + | |
| - | * The attack on the nation-state from above and below and progressive obsolescence of the nation-state, itself. | + | |
| - | * The assault on the nation-state from below would include both the gradual loss of consensus, such as has characterized the politics of the United States in the 21st century, as well as political turmoil in China (largely split amongst [[urban-rural split|urban-rural]] lines), Israel (orthodox vs. secular), Germany (the deadlock following the 2005 elections), the Islamic world (fundamentalist or traditional vs. secular) and elsewhere. It would include the rise of regional interests and the progressive devolution of the nation-state itself; e.g. the autonomization of Wales and Scotland in Britain; of Nunavut and Canada; the frequent incidence of separatist movements, such as in Chechnya, the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, the USSR, Ethiopia, the emergence of microstates, such as East Timor. | + | |
| - | * The assault on the nation-state from above would include the rise of powerful non-national entities: IGO's, multinational corporations, religions with global reach, and even terrorist organizations or cartels. It would include the progressive hemming-in of national economies and of nation-state under a growing network of super-national organizations and affiliations; e.g. the European Union, the newly formed African Union, as well as organizations such as the WTO or International Criminal Court. | + | |
| - | * The eclipsing of monetary wealth by knowledge and information as the primary determinant of power and its distribution. This was also discussed more fully in the sequel [[Powershift (book)|Powershift]]. | + | |
| - | * The eclipsing of manufacturing and manufacturing goods by knowledge-production and information-processing as the primary economic activity. This was significantly expanded on in the sequel [[Powershift (book)|Powershift]], where Toffler nearly drew the line between the two along gender lines, coining the term "Material-Ismo" (a play on "machismo") to represent the infatuation with the industrial era world of manufacturing (as opposed to paper-pushing), and equating value with product (as opposed equating value with information). The criticism came down particularly hard on the former Stalinist societies, that have in recent years seen a substantial dislocation, particularly along gender lines, with female life expectancy now as much as 10 years greater than male life expectancy throughout the former USSR. | + | |
| - | * The emergence of various high technologies, such as cloning, global communications networks, nanotechnology, etc. However, these aspects were discussed in greater depth in [[Future Shock]] and somewhat deemphasized in the Third Wave. | + | |
| - | * A transformation of the very character of democracy, itself, from rule-by-periodic polling at the election booth, toward a more direct interaction between the government and its populace. To a large extent, this has already emerged with the rise of the [[Internet]], though it has not yet congealed in the form of a fundamental revision of the constitution of any state. The trend toward on-line voting in the United States, following the election crisis of 2000, may be seen as a first step in this direction. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Despite the forecast of the obsolescence of the order of nation-states, and the rise of super-national entities, what was ''not'' forecast was the emergence of a world political union cast in the form of the United States of Earth. In the framework of the Wave Theory of Toffler, such an institution, if constituted along lines similar to present-day nation states, would represent the very archetype of the Second Wave writ large. Curiously, the potential of a federal world union cast in the mould of a heterogeneous mix (e.g. nations, labor unions, religions affiliations, businesses, popular assemblies, IGO's, etc. all brought together in an overlapping mix) was left open. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Another element notably absent from Toffler's Wave Theory was the evolution of society from an Earth-bound geography into a spacefaring or multi-world cosmography. The transition into outer space was not envisioned as a central feature of Third Wave society, other (perhaps) than the continuation and extension of near Earth orbit by national governments and their respective militaries. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Toffler left open both the question of what the outcome of the transformation of the structure of democracy was to entail, as well as the question of what kind of world order would supersede the order of nation-states. This became particularly acute in the 1993 addendum [[War and Anti-War]] which raised the issue of the "Genie out of the Bottle" (nuclear proliferation) and the illusion of the "Zone of Peace" being broken (i.e., 9-11, Madrid, London, etc.), but remained silent on the questions of what changes in the structure of the world would be required to resolve these dilemmas, if the nation-state is to become obsolete and "United State of Earth" type global organizations just as much so. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==Fourth Wave== | + | |
| - | Though talk about another major historical watershed on par with the [[Neolithic Revolution]] may seem premature, given that the [[Third Wave]] has only reached its crest with the advent of the [[Internet]], one of the central themes of [[Future Shock]] is that history, itself, would accelerate to the point where all of the past would catch up with the present. Therefore, the question has been raised with increasing frequency as to whether a Fourth Wave is looming or already underway with the most recent dislocations that appear to be taking place in the world. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | There has already been one book, published in 1993, titled [[Fourth Wave: Business in the 21st Century]] by [[Herman Bryant Maynard]] and [[Susan E Mehrtens]], which forecasts and advocates the rise of a form of eco-globalism in the 21st century. A closer reading of the book, however, may mistake its central theme as a partial completion of the questions left open by Toffler concerning the nature of Third Wave society at the global level, rather than another major historical watershed. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Another, more tempting, hypothesis is that the [[Fourth Wave]] is simply the expansion into outer space; possibly incorporating the rise of a second agricultural revolution to enable settlement off-world, and reclamation of desolate regions on the Earth. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | However, the question is still unresolved and no official word has been forthcoming from [[Toffler]]. Nor is one likely, given the quote "the sweeping synthesis [of the trilogy] is now complete" (from the Preface of [[Powershift (book)|Powershift]]). | + | |
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Revision as of 20:39, 9 August 2008
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A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild, foraging and hunting without significant recourse to the domestication of either. The demarcation between hunter-gatherers and other societies which rely more upon domestication (see agriculture and pastoralism and neolithic revolution) is not a clear-cut one, as many contemporary societies use a combination of both strategies to obtain the foodstuffs required to sustain themselves.
Hunting and gathering was presumably the only subsistence strategy employed by human societies for more than two million years, until the end of the Mesolithic period. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in several different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica, and the Andes beginning as early as 12,000 years ago. Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have perpetually declined partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Areas which were formerly unrestricted to hunter-gatherers were, and continue to be encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. Jared Diamond has also blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the Pleistocene, according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, although the overkill hypothesis he advocates is strongly contested.
As the number and size of many agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion soon led to the development of complex forms of government in agricultural centers such as the Fertile Crescent, Ancient India, Ancient China, Olmec, and Norte Chico; and set in motion the impetus for further expansion through warfare and colonization.
As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas seen as undesirable for agricultural use.
Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Hunter-gatherer" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
