German Peasants' War
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| - | The '''Peasants' War''' (''Deutscher Bauernkrieg'' in [[German language|German]], literally the [[German Peasants' War]]) was a [[popular revolt]] that took place in Europe during 1524–1525. It consisted, like the preceding [[Bundschuh]] movement and the [[Hussite Wars]], of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which [[peasant]]s, townsfolk and [[nobility|nobles]] all participated. | + | The '''German Peasants' War''', '''Great Peasants' War''' or '''Great Peasants' Revolt''' (Deutscher Bauernkrieg) was a widespread [[popular revolt]] in the German-speaking areas of [[Central Europe]] from 1524 to 1525. It failed because of the intense opposition by the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few, if any, of their goals. The war consisted, like the preceding [[Bundschuh]] movement and the [[Hussite Wars]], of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants and farmers, often supported by [[Protestant]] clergy, took the lead. The German Peasants' War was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. The fighting was at its height in the middle of 1525. |
| - | At its height in the spring and summer of 1525, the conflict, which occurred mostly in the southern, western and central areas of what is now modern [[Germany]] plus areas in neighboring [[Alsace]] and modern [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]], involved an estimated 300,000 peasant rebels: contemporary estimates put the dead at 100,000. It was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. | + | The war began with separate insurrections, beginning in the southwestern part of what is now [[Germany]] and neighboring [[Alsace]], and spread in subsequent insurrections to the central and eastern areas of Germany and present-day [[Austria]]. After the uprising in Germany was suppressed, it flared briefly in several [[Swiss Cantons]]. |
| - | ==Anabaptists== | + | In mounting their insurrection, peasants faced insurmountable obstacles. The democratic nature of their movement left them without a command structure and they lacked [[artillery]] and [[cavalry]]. Most of them had little, if any, military experience. In combat they often turned and fled, and were massacred by their pursuers. The opposition had experienced military leaders, well-equipped and disciplined armies, and ample funding. |
| - | On [[December 27]], [[1521]], three [[Zwickau prophets]], both influenced by and influencing [[Thomas Müntzer]], appeared in [[Wittenberg]] from [[Zwickau]]: Thomas Dreschel, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stübner. [[Martin Luther|Luther's]] reform was not radical enough for them. Like the [[Roman Catholic Church]], Luther practiced [[pedobaptism|infant baptism]], which the [[Anabaptist]]s considered to be "neither scriptural nor primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission into a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance, faith, spiritual illumination and free surrender of self to [[Christ]]." | + | |
| - | The reformist theologian and associate of Luther, [[Philipp Melanchthon]], who was powerless against the enthusiasts with whom his co-reformer [[Andreas Karlstadt]] sympathized, appealed to Luther, who was still hiding in the [[Wartburg]]. Luther was cautious in not condemning the new doctrine out of hand, but advised Melanchthon to treat its supporters gently and to test their spirits, in case they should be of [[God]]. There was confusion in Wittenberg, whose schools and university had sided with the "prophets" and were closed. From this arises the allegation that the Anabaptists were enemies of learning, which is contradicted by the fact that two of them, [[Ludwig Haetzer|Haetzer]] and [[Hans Denck|Denck]], produced and printed the first German translation of the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] prophets in 1527. The first leaders of the movement in [[Zürich]]—[[Conrad Grebel]], [[Felix Manz]], [[George Blaurock]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier]]—were learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. | + | The revolt incorporated some principles and rhetoric from the emerging [[Protestant Reformation]], through which the peasants sought influence and freedom. Historians have interpreted the economic aspects of the German Peasants' War differently, and social and cultural historians continue to disagree on its causes and nature. |
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| + | [[Friedrich Engels]] wrote ''[[The Peasant War in Germany]]'' (1850), which opened up the issue of the early stages of German capitalism on later bourgeois "civil society" at the level of peasant economies. Engels' analysis was picked up in the middle 20th century by the French [[Annales School]], and Marxist historians in East Germany and Britain. Using [[Karl Marx]]'s concept of [[historical materialism]], Engels portrayed the events of 1524–1525 as prefiguring the [[1848 Revolution]]. He wrote, "Three centuries have passed and many a thing has changed; still the Peasant War is not so impossibly far removed from our present struggle, and the opponents who have to be fought are essentially the same. We shall see the classes and fractions of classes which everywhere betrayed 1848 and 1849 in the role of traitors, though on a lower level of development, already in 1525." Engels ascribed the failure of the revolt to its fundamental conservatism. This led both Marx and Engels to conclude that the communist revolution, when it occurred, would be led not by a peasant army but by an urban [[proletariat]]. | ||
| - | On [[March 6]], [[1522]]), Luther returned to Wittenberg, where he interviewed the prophets, scorned their "spirits", banished them from the city, and had their adherents ejected from Zwickau and Erfurt. Denied access to the churches, the latter preached and celebrated the sacrament in private houses. Having been driven from the cities, they swarmed across the countryside. Compelled to leave Zwickau, Müntzer visited [[Bohemia]], lived for two years at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some time in Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his revolutionary religious and political doctrines with increasing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were concerned, with growing success. | ||
| - | The Peasants' War began chiefly as a revolt against feudal oppression, but under the leadership of Müntzer it became a war against all constituted authorities in a forcible attempt to establish Müntzer's ideal of a Christian commonwealth based on absolute equality and the community of goods. The total defeat of the rebels at [[Battle of Frankenhausen|Frankenhausen]] ([[May 15]], [[1525]]), followed by the execution of Müntzer and several other leaders, proved to be a merely temporary check on the Anabaptist movement. Scattered throughout Germany, [[Switzerland]] and the [[Netherlands]] were zealous propagandists whose teachings many were prepared to follow as soon as another leader emerged. | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| + | *[[Anabaptism]] | ||
| *[[List of peasant revolts]] | *[[List of peasant revolts]] | ||
| - | *[[Florian Geyer]] | ||
| - | *[[Croatian and Slovenian peasant revolt]] | ||
| - | *[[German Peasants' War]] | ||
| *[[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe]] | *[[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe]] | ||
| + | *[[Melchior Rink]], who was accused by [[Lutherans]] of being an instigator of the war | ||
| {{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} | ||
Current revision
Illustration: The image breakers, c.1566 –1568 by Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder
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The German Peasants' War, Great Peasants' War or Great Peasants' Revolt (Deutscher Bauernkrieg) was a widespread popular revolt in the German-speaking areas of Central Europe from 1524 to 1525. It failed because of the intense opposition by the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few, if any, of their goals. The war consisted, like the preceding Bundschuh movement and the Hussite Wars, of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants and farmers, often supported by Protestant clergy, took the lead. The German Peasants' War was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the French Revolution of 1789. The fighting was at its height in the middle of 1525.
The war began with separate insurrections, beginning in the southwestern part of what is now Germany and neighboring Alsace, and spread in subsequent insurrections to the central and eastern areas of Germany and present-day Austria. After the uprising in Germany was suppressed, it flared briefly in several Swiss Cantons.
In mounting their insurrection, peasants faced insurmountable obstacles. The democratic nature of their movement left them without a command structure and they lacked artillery and cavalry. Most of them had little, if any, military experience. In combat they often turned and fled, and were massacred by their pursuers. The opposition had experienced military leaders, well-equipped and disciplined armies, and ample funding.
The revolt incorporated some principles and rhetoric from the emerging Protestant Reformation, through which the peasants sought influence and freedom. Historians have interpreted the economic aspects of the German Peasants' War differently, and social and cultural historians continue to disagree on its causes and nature.
Friedrich Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany (1850), which opened up the issue of the early stages of German capitalism on later bourgeois "civil society" at the level of peasant economies. Engels' analysis was picked up in the middle 20th century by the French Annales School, and Marxist historians in East Germany and Britain. Using Karl Marx's concept of historical materialism, Engels portrayed the events of 1524–1525 as prefiguring the 1848 Revolution. He wrote, "Three centuries have passed and many a thing has changed; still the Peasant War is not so impossibly far removed from our present struggle, and the opponents who have to be fought are essentially the same. We shall see the classes and fractions of classes which everywhere betrayed 1848 and 1849 in the role of traitors, though on a lower level of development, already in 1525." Engels ascribed the failure of the revolt to its fundamental conservatism. This led both Marx and Engels to conclude that the communist revolution, when it occurred, would be led not by a peasant army but by an urban proletariat.
See also
- Anabaptism
- List of peasant revolts
- Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe
- Melchior Rink, who was accused by Lutherans of being an instigator of the war
