Drive theory
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| - | {{Template}} | + | [[Image:The Heart Has Its Reasons by Odilon Redon.jpg |thumb|right|200px|''[[The heart has its reasons, of which reason knows nothing]]'' (c. 1887) by [[Odilon Redon]], a phrase from the ''[[Pensées]]'' ([[1669]]) by [[Blaise Pascal]]]]{{Template}} |
| - | :''[[latent]]'' | + | The terms '''drive theory''' and '''drive reduction theory''' refer to a diverse set of [[motivation]]al theories in [[psychology]]. Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain physiological [[need]]s and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of [[homeostasis]] and relaxation. According to the theory, drive tends to increase over time and operates on a feedback control system, much like a thermostat. |
| - | In his model of the child's [[psychosexual development]], Sigmund [[Freud]] describes five stages. Freud believed that the child discharges his/her libido (sexual energy) through a distinct body area that characterizes each stage. | + | == Psychoanalysis == |
| - | The stages are: | + | In [[Freud]]ian [[psychoanalysis]], drive theory refers to the theory of drives, [[motivation]]s, or [[instinct]]s, that have clear objects. Examples include what Freud called [[Eros and Thanatos]], the drives toward Life and Death, respectively. |
| - | *the [[oral stage|'oral phase']] (first stage) | + | |
| - | *the [[anal stage|'anal phase']] (second stage) | + | |
| - | *the [[phallic stage|'phallic phase']] (third stage) | + | |
| - | *the 'latency phase' (fourth stage) | + | |
| - | *the [[genital stage|'genital phase']] (fifth stage). | + | |
| - | Because the latency stage is less of a stage and more of period between stages, it may begin at any time between the ages of 3 and 7 (whenever the child goes to [[school]]) and may continue until anywhere from the ages of 8 to 13 (whenever the child's [[puberty]] begins). The age range is affected by childrearing practices; mothers in First World countries, during the time when Freud was forming his theories, were more likely to stay at home with young children, and adolescents began puberty on average later than adolescents today. | + | Freud's [[Civilization and Its Discontents]] was published in Germany in 1930 when the rise of fascism in that country was [[Adolf_Hitler#Rise_to_power|well under way]], and the warnings of a second European war were leading to opposing calls for rearmament and pacifism. Against this background, Freud wrote "In face of the destructive forces unleashed, now it may be expected that the other of the two 'heavenly forces,' eternal Eros, will put forth his strength so as to maintain himself alongside of his equally immortal adversary." (''[[Civilization and its discontents]]'') |
| - | Freud described the latency phase as one of relative stability. No new organization of sexuality develops, and he did not pay a lot of attention to it. For this reason, this phase is not always mentioned in descriptions of his theory as one of the phases, but as a separate period. | + | == Learning theory == |
| - | The latency phase originates during the phallic stage when the child's [[Oedipus Complex]] begins to dissolve. The child realizes that his/her wishes and longings for the parent of the opposite sex cannot be fulfilled and will turn away from these desires. | + | According to such theorists as [[Clark Hull]] and [[Kenneth Spence]], drive reduction is a major cause of learning and behavior. Primary drives are innate drives (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex), whereas secondary drives are learned by conditioning (e.g. money). |
| - | He/she starts to identify with the parent of the same sex. The [[libido]] is transferred from parents to friends of the same sex, clubs and hero/role-model figures. The sexual and aggressive [[drive theory|drives]] are expressed in socially accepted forms through the [[defense mechanisms]] of [[psychological repression|repression]] and [[Sublimation_%28psychology%29|sublimation]]. | + | There are several problems that leave the validity of drive theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need, but it reduces drive on a regular basis by a pay check. Secondly, drive reduction theory has trouble explaining why humans and other animals voluntarily increase tension by exploring their environments, even when they are not hungry or thirsty. |
| - | During the latency phase, the energy the child previously put into the Oedipal problem can be used for developing the self. The superego is already present, but becomes more organized and principled. The child acquires culturally regarded skills and values. The child has evolved from a baby with primitive drives to a reasonable human being with complex feelings like shame, guilt and disgust. During this stage, the child learns to adapt to reality and also begins the process of what Freud terms [[Infantile_amnesia|‘infantile amnesia’]]: the repression of the child's earliest traumatic, overly sexual or evil memories. | + | == Social psychology == |
| - | ==Other thinkers== | + | In [[social psychology]], drive theory was used by [[Robert Zajonc]] in 1965 as an explanation of the phenomenon of [[social facilitation]]. The ''audience effect'' notes that in some cases the presence of a passive audience will facilitate the better performance of a task; while in other cases the presence of an audience will inhibit the performance of a task. |
| - | Freud's daughter, the psychoanalyst [[Anna Freud]], saw possible consequences for the child when the solution of the Oedipal problem is delayed. She states that this will lead to a variety of problems in the latency period: the child will have problems with adjusting to belonging to a group, and will show lack of interest, school phobias and extreme homesickness (if sent away to school). However, if the Oedipal problem is resolved, the latency phase may bring the child new problems, like joining gangs, rebelling against authority and the beginnings of delinquency. | + | |
| - | The developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst [[Erik Erikson]] developed a stage model for the evolution of the ego. The latency phase corresponds to his stage of competence, or ‘industry and inferiority’, age 6 to puberty. The child is eager to learn new skills. During this stage, the child compares his/her self worth to others. Because the child can recognize major disparities in his/her abilities relative to other children, the child may develop a sense of inferiority to them. | + | Drive theory states that due to the unpredictable nature of people, a person performing a task rarely knows for certain what others are going to do in response. Therefore, there is a clear [[evolution|evolutionary]] advantage for an individual's presence to cause us to be in a state of alert [[arousal]]. Increased arousal ([[stress (biological)|stress]]) can therefore be seen as an instinctive reaction to social presence. |
| + | |||
| + | This arousal creates a "drive" that causes us to enact the behaviors that form our dominant response for that particular situation. Our dominant response is the most likely response given our skills at use. | ||
| + | |||
| + | If the dominant response is "correct" (that is to say, if the task we are to perform is subjectively perceived as being easy), then the social pressure produces an improved performance. However, if the dominant response is "incorrect" (the task is difficult), then social presence produces an impaired performance. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==See also== | ||
| + | |||
| + | *[[Clark Hull|Clark Hull's]] theories on motivation | ||
| + | *[[Yerkes-Dodson law]] of performance and arousal | ||
| + | *[[Incentive theory]] of motivation | ||
| - | ==References== | ||
| - | * Baldwin, A.L. (1967). ''Theories of child development.'' United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | ||
| - | * Carver, S.C., Scheier, M.J. (2004). ''Perspectives on Personality'' (5th edition). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc. | ||
| - | * Erikson, E.H. (1972). ''Het kind en de samenleving'' (6e druk). Utrecht/Antwerpen: Het Spectrum. | ||
| - | * Etchegoyen, A. (1993). Latency – a reappraisal. ''International Journal of Psychoanalysis'', 74, 347-357. | ||
| - | * Freud, A. (1965/1980). ''Het normale en het gestoorde kind'' (vertaling, 1e druk). Rotterdam: Kooyker Wetenschappelijke Uitgeverij (Oorspr.: Normality and pathology in childhood, 1965). | ||
| - | * Kriekemans, A. (1965). ''Geschiedenis van de kinderpsychologie tot en met Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud en Melanie Klein.'' Tielt: Uitgeverij Lannoo. | ||
| - | * Kuiper, P.C. (1972). ''Neurosenleer'' (6e druk). Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus. | ||
| - | * Woodworth, R.S, & Sheehan M.R. (1967). ''Contemporary schools of psychology'' (6e druk). Great Britain: the Ronald Press Company. | ||
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The terms drive theory and drive reduction theory refer to a diverse set of motivational theories in psychology. Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain physiological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation. According to the theory, drive tends to increase over time and operates on a feedback control system, much like a thermostat.
Contents |
Psychoanalysis
In Freudian psychoanalysis, drive theory refers to the theory of drives, motivations, or instincts, that have clear objects. Examples include what Freud called Eros and Thanatos, the drives toward Life and Death, respectively.
Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents was published in Germany in 1930 when the rise of fascism in that country was well under way, and the warnings of a second European war were leading to opposing calls for rearmament and pacifism. Against this background, Freud wrote "In face of the destructive forces unleashed, now it may be expected that the other of the two 'heavenly forces,' eternal Eros, will put forth his strength so as to maintain himself alongside of his equally immortal adversary." (Civilization and its discontents)
Learning theory
According to such theorists as Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence, drive reduction is a major cause of learning and behavior. Primary drives are innate drives (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex), whereas secondary drives are learned by conditioning (e.g. money).
There are several problems that leave the validity of drive theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need, but it reduces drive on a regular basis by a pay check. Secondly, drive reduction theory has trouble explaining why humans and other animals voluntarily increase tension by exploring their environments, even when they are not hungry or thirsty.
Social psychology
In social psychology, drive theory was used by Robert Zajonc in 1965 as an explanation of the phenomenon of social facilitation. The audience effect notes that in some cases the presence of a passive audience will facilitate the better performance of a task; while in other cases the presence of an audience will inhibit the performance of a task.
Drive theory states that due to the unpredictable nature of people, a person performing a task rarely knows for certain what others are going to do in response. Therefore, there is a clear evolutionary advantage for an individual's presence to cause us to be in a state of alert arousal. Increased arousal (stress) can therefore be seen as an instinctive reaction to social presence.
This arousal creates a "drive" that causes us to enact the behaviors that form our dominant response for that particular situation. Our dominant response is the most likely response given our skills at use.
If the dominant response is "correct" (that is to say, if the task we are to perform is subjectively perceived as being easy), then the social pressure produces an improved performance. However, if the dominant response is "incorrect" (the task is difficult), then social presence produces an impaired performance.
See also
- Clark Hull's theories on motivation
- Yerkes-Dodson law of performance and arousal
- Incentive theory of motivation
