Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire
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| + | Beginning from the late eighteenth century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. In response to foreign threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous internal reform which came to be known as the [[Tanzimat]], which succeeded in significantly strengthening the Ottoman central state, despite the empire's precarious international position. Over the course of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era. The process of reform and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the [[Nizam-ı Cedid]] (New Order) during the reign of Sultan [[Selim III]] (r. 1789-1807) and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the [[Edict of Gülhane|Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane]] in 1839 and the [[Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856|Hatt-ı Hümayun]] in 1856. At the end of this period, marked with 1908, to a degree the [[Ottoman Modern Army|Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized]] according to the model of Western European Armies. The period was followed by [[defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922)]]. | ||
| - | '''''Le Sommeil''''' (translated in [[English language|English]] variously as '''''The Sleepers''''' and '''''Sleep''''') is an [[Erotic art|erotic]] oil painting on canvas by [[France|French]] artist [[Gustave Courbet]] created in 1866. The painting, which depicts [[lesbianism]], is also known as the ''Two Friends'' (''Les Deux Amies'') and ''Indolence and Lust'' (''Paresse et Luxure''). | + | ==See also== |
| + | *[[Ottoman Decline Thesis]] | ||
| + | *[[Reform attempts in the Ottoman Empire]] | ||
| - | ==History== | ||
| - | ''Le Sommeil'' was originally commissioned by the [[Turkey|Turkish]] diplomat and art collector of the [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|late]] [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman era]], [[Halil Şerif Paşa]], who lived in [[Paris]] since 1860. The painting was not permitted to be shown publicly until 1988, like a number of his other works such as ''[[L'Origine du monde]]''. When ''Le Sommeil'' was exhibited by a picture dealer in 1872, it became the subject of a police report. One of the models for the painting was [[Joanna Hiffernan]], who was the mistress of fellow painter [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler|James Abbott Whistler]] at the time. Whistler's relationship with Hiffernan ended soon afterwards, and his opinion of Courbet soured. | ||
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| - | The ''Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and Cultures'' describes ''Le Sommeil'' as a "famous" painting. The painting created an impact in 19th century art, because after the public display of ''Le Sommeil'', a number of contemporary artists were influenced by the theme of lesbian couples. Repetition of this theme helped to lower the taboos associated with lesbian relationships. | ||
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| - | Today ''Le Sommeil'' is in the collection of the [[Petit Palais]], a Paris museum. | ||
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| - | ==Description== | ||
| - | The painting shows two naked women lying asleep on a bed entwined in an erotic embrace as couples do, resting after sexual intercourse. | ||
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| - | The setting is a bedroom with various textiles and ornamental furnishing. In the background there is a dark blue velvet curtain and in the right corner a table with a decorative flower vase. In the foreground is a small wooden table holding three items – a colored [[flacon]] (a small vessel), a transparent crystal vase, and a cup. Except for these few furnishings, there is nothing in the painting to overshadow the main image – the women. | ||
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| - | One of the sleeping women is [[blonde]], the other is [[brunette]]. Also, their skin color is significantly different. For color contrast, Courbet worked curves between the women. A broken pearl necklace and a hairpin scattered in the bed reference the nature of their previous activity. | ||
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| - | ==Analysis== | ||
| - | The painting was inspired by [[Charles Baudelaire]]'s poem "[[Delphine et Hippolyte]]", from his collection ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]''. [[Tamsin Wilton]] derided the painting as 'pseudo-lesbian [[soft porn]]'. ''Le Sommeil'' has been interpreted as a [[Realist visual arts|realist painting]], detailing the bodies without glossing over their imperfections. | ||
| - | ==See also== | ||
| - | *[[Eros and Courbet]] | ||
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Beginning from the late eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. In response to foreign threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous internal reform which came to be known as the Tanzimat, which succeeded in significantly strengthening the Ottoman central state, despite the empire's precarious international position. Over the course of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era. The process of reform and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) during the reign of Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun in 1856. At the end of this period, marked with 1908, to a degree the Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European Armies. The period was followed by defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922).
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