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 +"Objects which in themselves we [[view]] with [[pain]], we delight to contemplate when [[representation (arts)|reproduced]] with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies" --Aristotle, ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' [[Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies|[...]]].
 +<hr>
 +"So goodbye to the [[Theory of forms|Platonic Forms]]. They are ''[[teretismata]]'', and have nothing to do with our speech" (''[[Posterior Analytics]]'', Aristotle).
 +|}
 +[[Image:Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens painting by Raphael.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Plato]] (left) and [[Aristotle]] (right), a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the [[earth]], representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand. Plato holds his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and points his [[index finger]] to the [[heaven]]s, representing his belief in [[The Forms]]]]
 +[[Image:Lai d' Aristote.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aristotle and Phyllis, c. [[1485]], from the medieval legend ''[[Lai d' Aristote]]'', illustrated by the [[Master of the Housebook]]]]
{{Template}} {{Template}}
-'''Aristotle''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Aristotélēs'') ([[384 BC]] – [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] [[philosophy|philosopher]], a student of [[Plato]] and teacher of [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote on diverse subjects, including [[physics]], [[metaphysics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]] (including theater), [[biology]] and [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[politics]], [[government]], and [[ethics]]. Along with [[Socrates]] and [[Plato]], Aristotle was one of the most influential of the [[Greek philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]]. They transformed [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it 
-  
-Aristotle defines philosophy as "the knowledge of [[being]]." 
-<h2>Lai d' Aristote</h2>+'''Aristotle''' (384 BC – 322 BC) was a [[Greek philosopher]], a student of [[Plato]] and teacher of [[Alexander the Great]]. His writings cover many subjects, including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[metaphysics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], theater, music, logic, [[rhetoric]], politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and [[Socrates]] (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
-Aristotle, supposed tutor and counselor to Alexander the Great, fell for the scheme of the youthful monarch's [[paramour]]. One of the best loved medieval tales, the so-called "[[Lai d' Aristote]]," presented a scandalous image of the great philosopher. The story of Aristotle's fall remained popular for more than 500 years.+
-<h2>First theory of horror</h2>+Aristotle's views on the [[Aristotelian physics|physical sciences]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the [[Renaissance]], although they were ultimately replaced by [[Classical mechanics|Newtonian physics]]. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern [[formal logic]]. In metaphysics, [[Aristotelianism]] had a profound influence on [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)|philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions]] in the [[Middle Ages]], and it continues to influence [[Christian theology]], especially the [[scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]] and some strains of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] thought. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
-: ''Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies.'' --[[Aristotle]] via the ''[[Poetics]]''.+ 
 +==Practical philosophy==
 +===Ethics===
 + 
 +Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nichomachean Ethics]]''.
 + 
 +Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (normally translated as ''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[aretē]]''), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).
 + 
 +Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronēsis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible ethical virtue, that of wisdom.
 + 
 +===Politics===
 +In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the [[family]] which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".
 + 
 +The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different to Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29-31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1-3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
 + 
 +===Rhetoric and poetics===
 +:''[[Poetics (Aristotle)]], [[Aristotle's aesthetics]], [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)]]''
 +Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|mimetic]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.
 + 
 +While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic [[mimesis]]. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.
 + 
 +Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].
 + 
 +==Legacy==
 +More than twenty-three hundred years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. [[Bertrand Russell]] notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
 + 
 +===Later Greek philosophers===
 +The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Meno]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and [[Theophrastus]]. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"
 + 
 +===Influence on Christian theologians===
 +Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]. See ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having
 +:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'' at his beddes heed''
 +:''Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,''
 +:''Of aristotle and his philosophie,''
 + 
 +The Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] says of Aristotle in [[The Divine Comedy|the first circles of hell]],
 +:''I saw the Master there of those who know,''
 +:''Amid the philosophic family,''
 +:''By all admired, and by all reverenced;''
 +:''There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,''
 +:''Who stood beside him closer than the rest.''
 + 
 +===Views on women===
 +Aristotle's analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element; it is on these grounds that Aristotle is considered by some feminist critics to have been a [[Misogyny|misogynist]].
 + 
 +On the other hand, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too: In places like Sparta where the lot of women is bad, there can only be half-happiness in society.(see Rhetoric 1.5.6)
 + 
 +===Post-Enlightenment thinkers===
 +The German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or ''arete'' – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to [[warrant]] his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.
 + 
 +==List of works==
 +The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through Mediæval manuscript transmission are collected in the [[Corpus Aristotelicum]]. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
 + 
 + 
 +== See also ==
 +*[[Organon]]
 +*[[Lai d' Aristote]]
 +*''[[Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies]].''
 +*[[Aristotelianism]]
 +*[[Aristotelian ethics]]
 +*[[Aristotelian physics]]
 +*[[Aristotelian view of God]]
 +*[[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]]
 +*[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]
 +*[[Conimbricenses]]
 +*[[Hylomorphism]]
 +*[[Philia]]
 +*[[Phronesis]]
 +*[[Recovery of Aristotle]]
 +* ''[[Aristote au mont Saint-Michel]]'' (2008), a book by French historian Sylvain Gouguenheim
 + 
 +{{GFDL}}
 + 
 + 
 +[[Category:Canon]]

Revision as of 07:53, 24 May 2018

"Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies" --Aristotle, Poetics [...].


"So goodbye to the Platonic Forms. They are teretismata, and have nothing to do with our speech" (Posterior Analytics, Aristotle).

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and points his index finger to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms
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Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and points his index finger to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms
Image:Lai d' Aristote.jpg
Aristotle and Phyllis, c. 1485, from the medieval legend Lai d' Aristote, illustrated by the Master of the Housebook

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Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.

Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church and some strains of Eastern Orthodox thought. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.

Contents

Practical philosophy

Ethics

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nichomachean Ethics.

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).

Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronēsis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible ethical virtue, that of wisdom.

Politics

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".

The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different to Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."

Rhetoric and poetics

Poetics (Aristotle), Aristotle's aesthetics, Rhetoric (Aristotle)

Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.

While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.

Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.

Legacy

More than twenty-three hundred years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.

Later Greek philosophers

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"

Influence on Christian theologians

Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having

                      at his beddes heed
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
Of aristotle and his philosophie,

The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell,

I saw the Master there of those who know,
Amid the philosophic family,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.

Views on women

Aristotle's analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element; it is on these grounds that Aristotle is considered by some feminist critics to have been a misogynist.

On the other hand, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too: In places like Sparta where the lot of women is bad, there can only be half-happiness in society.(see Rhetoric 1.5.6)

Post-Enlightenment thinkers

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or arete – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.

List of works

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through Mediæval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.


See also




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