Archaeology  

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 +[[Image:Antichità Romane.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Appian Way]] as it appeared in [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi|Piranesi]]'s imagination (1756), from ''[[Le Antichità Romane]]''.]]
{{Template}} {{Template}}
-'''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from Greek: αρχαίος, ''archaios'', combining form in Latin ''archae-'', "ancient"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the science that studies [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s. +'''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from Greek: αρχαίος, ''archaios'', combining form in Latin ''[[archae-]]'', "ancient"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the science that studies [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s.
 +== History of archaeology ==
 + 
 +:''[[History of archaeology]]''
 + 
 +===Antiquarians===
 +The science of archaeology (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἀρχαιολογία, ''archaiologia'' from ἀρχαῖος, ''arkhaios'', "ancient" and -λογία, ''-logia'', "[[-logy]]") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied [[history]] with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-century antiquary, Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]], "We speak from facts not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a [[science]] took place during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment era]] in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.
 + 
 +In Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of [[Ancient Greece|Greco]]-[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late [[Middle Age]]. [[Flavio Biondo]], an Italian [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanist]] historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and [[topography of ancient Rome]] in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] and [[William Camden]], conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.
 + 
 +===First excavations===
 + 
 +One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was [[Stonehenge]] and other [[Megalith|megalithic monuments]] in [[England]]. [[John Aubrey]] (1626-1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous [[megalith]]ic and other [[Ancient monument|field monuments]] in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.
 + 
 +Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]], both of which had been covered by ash during the [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79]]. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient [[fresco]]s, had a big impact throughout [[Europe]].
 + 
 +However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as [[Stratification (archaeology)|stratification]] and [[Archaeological context|context]] were overlooked.
 + 
 +===Development of archaeological method===
 + 
 +The father of archaeological excavation was [[William Cunnington]] (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in [[Wiltshire]] from around 1798, funded by Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]]. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of [[neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]] [[tumulus|barrows]], and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.
 + 
 +One of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of [[stratigraphy]]. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new [[geology|geological]] and [[palaeontology|paleontological]] work of scholars like [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]], [[James Hutton]] and [[Charles Lyell]]. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of [[Prehistory|prehistorical]] and [[Bronze Age]] sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] and [[Christian Jürgensen Thomsen]] began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.
 + 
 +A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and [[ethnology|ethnologist]], [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]], who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He [[Pitt Rivers Museum|arranged his artifacts]] by type or "[[Typology (archaeology)|typologically]], and within types by date or "chronologically". This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that ''all'' artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.
 + 
 +[[William Flinders Petrie]] is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the [[seriation (archaeology)|system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings]], which revolutionized the chronological basis of [[Egyptology]]. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including [[Howard Carter]] who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh [[Tutankhamun]].
 + 
 +The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of [[Hissarlik]], on the site of ancient [[Troy]], carried out by [[Heinrich Schliemann]], [[Frank Calvert]] and [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the [[Hellenistic period]]. Meanwhile, the work of Sir [[Arthur Evans]] at [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]] revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced [[Minoan civilization]].
 + 
 +The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the [[Wheeler-Kenyon method|grid system of excavation]], which was further improved by his student [[Kathleen Kenyon]].
 + 
 +Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when [[maritime archaeology]] and [[urban archaeology]] became more prevalent and [[rescue archaeology]] was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.
== See also == == See also ==
Line 7: Line 40:
*[[Domus Aurea]] *[[Domus Aurea]]
*[[history]] *[[history]]
-*[[Pompeii]]{{GFDL}}+*[[Rediscovery of Pompeii]]
 +{{GFDL}}

Revision as of 23:25, 28 December 2020

The Appian Way as it appeared in Piranesi's imagination (1756), from Le Antichità Romane.
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The Appian Way as it appeared in Piranesi's imagination (1756), from Le Antichità Romane.

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Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek: αρχαίος, archaios, combining form in Latin archae-, "ancient"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes.

Contents

History of archaeology

History of archaeology

Antiquarians

The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "ancient" and -λογία, -logia, "-logy") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.

First excavations

One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey (1626-1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.

Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe.

However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked.

Development of archaeological method

The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.

One of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton and Charles Lyell. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.

A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist, Augustus Pitt Rivers, who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artifacts by type or "typologically, and within types by date or "chronologically". This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.

William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun.

The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period. Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization.

The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon.

Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.

See also




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