Aizuchi
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| - | '''Speech disfluencies''' are any of various breaks, irregularities, or [[vocables|non-lexical vocables]] that occur within the flow of otherwise fluent speech. These include ''false starts'', i.e. words and sentences that are cut off mid-utterance, phrases that are restarted or repeated and repeated syllables, ''fillers'' i.e. grunts or non-lexical utterances such as "uh", "erm" and "well", and ''repaired'' utterances, i.e. instances of speakers correcting their own slips of the tongue or mispronunciations (before anyone else gets a chance to). | + | In the [[Japanese language]], '''Aizuchi''' ({{lang-ja|[[wikt:相槌|相槌]]}} or {{lang|ja|[[wikt:あいづち|あいづち]]}}, {{IPA-ja|aizu͍t͡ɕi|IPA}}) are the frequent [[interjection]]s during a conversation that indicate the listener is paying attention or understands the speaker. In linguistic terms, these are a form of [[phatic]] expression. Aizuchi are considered reassuring to the speaker, indicating that the listener is active and involved in the discussion. |
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| - | * "The best part of my job is … well … the best part of my job is the responsibility." | + | |
| - | * "The soup is too hot and it would burn if you … it would burn ''you'' if you tried to eat it." | + | |
| - | * "Fool me once, shame on—uh, shame on you. Fool me twice—you can't get fooled again." | + | |
| - | * "Y'know, when I was asked earlier about, uh, the issue of coal, uh, you … under my plan, uh, of a cap and trade system, electricity rates would necessarily skyrocket …" | + | |
| - | * "Yeah, well, you know, that's just, like, your opinion, man." | + | |
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| - | == Fillers == | + | |
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| - | [[Filler (linguistics)|Fillers]] are parts of speech which are not generally recognized as purposeful or containing formal meaning, usually expressed as pauses such as ''uh'', ''like'' and ''er'', but also extending to [[conversation analysis|repairs]] ("He was wearing a black—uh, I mean a blue, a blue shirt"), and articulation problems such as [[stuttering]]. Use is normally frowned upon in [[mass media]] such as [[news]] reports or [[film]]s, but they occur regularly in everyday conversation, sometimes representing upwards of 20% of "words" in conversation.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} Fillers can also be used as a pause for thought ("I arrived at, um—3 o'clock"). | + | |
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| - | == Language-dependence == | + | |
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| - | Research in computational linguistics has revealed a correlation between native language and patterns of disfluencies in spontaneously uttered speech.<ref>''Spoken Language Processing in a Multilingual Context'' | + | |
| - | L.F. Lamel, M. Adda-Decker, J.L. Gauvain, G. Adda | + | |
| - | [[LIMSI]]-[[CNRS]], BP 133 | + | |
| - | 91403 Orsay cedex, FRANCE</ref> In addition to this research, there are other subjective accounts reported by individuals. According to one commentator, [[United States of America|Americans]] use pauses such as "um" or "uh," the [[United Kingdom|British]] say "er" or "erm",<ref>Another commenter [http://separatedbyacommonlanguage.blogspot.com/2008/05/uh-er-um-erm.html notes] that these are the same, but the British [[non-rhotic]] spelling causes the spelling to differ.</ref> the [[France|French]] use "euh", the [[German language|Germans]] say "äh" (pronounced eh or er), [[Japanese language|Japanese]] use "ā", "anō", or "ēto", and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers say "ehhh" (also used in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), "como" (normally meaning 'like'), and "este" (normally meaning 'this'). Besides "er" and "uh", the Portuguese use "hã or é". In [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] "nèi ge" and "zhè ge" ('that' and 'this') are used. In [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]], speakers vocalize an "ovaj". Arabic speakers say "يعني", the pronunciation of which is close to "yaa'ni", {{IPA-ar|jæʕni|}} or {{IPA|[jaʕni]}}, (literally, "he means", there being no grammatically gender-neutral third person) and in Turkish, they say "şey" in addition to "yani" (without the {{IPAblink|ʕ}} found in Arabic).<ref>[http://www.speech.sri.com/press/nyt-jan03-2004.html New York Times, 2004-January-03]</ref> A more complete list can be found on the [[Filler (linguistics)|fillers]] page. | + | |
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| - | == Research == | + | |
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| - | Recent [[linguistics|linguistic]] research has suggested that non-pathological disfluencies may contain a variety of meaning; the frequency of "uh" and "um" in English is often reflective of a speaker's alertness or emotional state. Some have hypothesized that the time of an "uh" or "um" is used for the planning of future words; other researchers have suggested that they are actually to be understood as full-fledged [[function words]] rather than accidents, indicating a delay of variable time in which the speaker wishes to pause without voluntarily yielding control of the dialogue. There is some debate as to whether to consider them a form of [[white noise]] or as a meaning-filled part of [[language]]. | + | |
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| - | Speech disfluencies have also become important in recent years with the advent of [[speech-to-text]] programs and other attempts at enabling [[computer]]s to make sense of human speech. | + | |
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| - | =="Hmm"== | + | |
| - | '''Hmm''' is an exclamation (an emphatic [[interjection]]) typically used to express reflection, [[uncertainty]], [[thoughtful]] absorption, or hesitation. Hmm is technically categorized as an [[interjection]], like um, [[#"Huh" – the universal syllable|huh]], [[Interjection|ouch]], erm, and wow. The first h-sound is a mimic for breathing in, and the second m-sound, since the mouth is closed, is representing that the person is not currently sure what to say ("erm" and "um" are used similarly). The pause filler indicates that the person is temporarily speechless, but still engaged in thought. The variety of tones, pitches, and lengths used add nuances in meaning. | + | |
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| - | ===Etymology=== | + | |
| - | The expression is used in many different languages, however the origin of "hmm" is difficult to find, mainly because "the word is so natural that it may have arisen at any time," as highlighted by [[linguist]] at the [[University of Minnesota]] and an expert on word origins, [[Anatoly Liberman]]. It is possible [[Neanderthals]] might have used "hmm". [[Nicholas Christenfeld]], a [[psychologist]] at the [[University of California]], San Diego, and an expert on filled pauses, attests "hmm" is popular largely since it's such a neutral sound and that "it's easier to say than anything else". The earliest attestations of "hmm" are from [[Shakespeare]], "I cried hum... But markt him not a word" (1598 [[Shakespeare]] Henry IV, Pt. 1 iii. i. 154). It may be a [[vocable]] that grew out of [[lexicalized]] throat-clearing. | + | |
| - | ===Use as a filler word=== | + | |
| - | "Hmm" is a "filler" word, such as "[[:wikt:um|um]]" and "[[:wikt:er|er]]". Use of "hmm" for "filled pauses" has been considered by many as stupidity and showing a lack of skill or competence, but many linguists attest this judgement is unjustified. Typically, "hmm" is uttered when the person is being especially conscious about whom they are talking with, and as a result are thinking deeply about what to say. Moreover, the use of "hmm" is often interactional and cognitive. The interactional function is to do with politeness. Professor Michael Handford, a professor of applied linguistics and English language at [[Cardiff University]], gave the example of if one invited somebody to a party, and they said no without a filled pause, they would appear rude probably. However, if the person replied, "hmm, sorry, no" they would appear much more polite, as it seems the speaker is giving the offer some thought, rather than abruptly declining the offer. | + | |
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| - | ===Thoughtful absorption=== | + | |
| - | The use of "hmm" is typically used during "thoughtful absorption", which is when one is engrossed in their flow of ideas and associations, that lead to a reality-oriented conclusion. The utterance of "hmm" is key for surrounding person/s to understand that the person is currently involved in thoughtful observation; if the person thinks silently, those surrounding may not be sure that the person is currently thinking. "Um" and "er" are also used during thoughtful absorption, however, typically the extent of the absorption of thought is limited when "um" and "er" are uttered since they are usually spoken mid-sentence, and for shorter periods of time than "hmm". For this reason, thoughtful absorption is typically associated with the utterance of "hmm". | + | |
| - | =="Huh" – the universal syllable== | + | |
| - | Research has shown that the word/syllable "huh" is perhaps the most recognized syllable throughout the world. It is an [[interrogative]]. This crosses geography, language, cultures and nationalities. | + | |
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| - | == See also == | + | |
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| - | * [[Aizuchi]] | + | |
| - | * [[Discourse marker]] | + | |
| - | * [[Like]] | + | |
| - | * [[Natural language processing]] | + | |
| - | * [[Speech recognition]] | + | |
| + | ==See also== | ||
| + | * [[Backchannel (linguistics)]] | ||
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In the Japanese language, Aizuchi (Template:Lang-ja or Template:Lang, Template:IPA-ja) are the frequent interjections during a conversation that indicate the listener is paying attention or understands the speaker. In linguistic terms, these are a form of phatic expression. Aizuchi are considered reassuring to the speaker, indicating that the listener is active and involved in the discussion.
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